Emotional intelligence, human values, creation and dissemination of content on social networks by girls in countries with emerging economies

ABSTRACT

This study examines the relationship between emotional intelligence, the use of social networks (to create and share content), and adolescent girls’ practice of human values. A descriptive and exploratory analysis was conducted, involving a survey of 491 girls in Colombia and Peru, aged 8 to 18 and in grades three to eleven. Excluding Instagram and TikTok, no significant differences were found between the type of network used and the level of emotional intelligence management. Furthermore, no relationship was found between the social media platform used and the girls’ experience of values. Differences were found in Clarity, Repair, and Values, but not in Attention and Content, when comparing between age groups or educational levels. These results hold importance for those involved in the development of this population, given the significance of emotional intelligence management, social media usage, and the experience and practice of human values for girls.

KEYWORDS:

• Adolescents
• emotional intelligence
• human values
• social networks
• girls
• content creation

Introduction

It is undeniable that the behaviour across different life stages of individuals, particularly during adolescence, is influenced by a diversity of personal, familial, social, and technological factors (Pérez-Fuentes et al., 2019). From this perspective, given that adolescence is a period characterized by psychological, biological, social, and cognitive changes, individuals necessitate the development of the capacity to confront various challenges related to interpersonal relationships, social influence, new responsibilities, academic demands, peer pressure, and a myriad of other situations. In this context, emotional intelligence (EI), social networks, and the practice of human values play a significant role (Collado-Soler et al., 2023; Kong et al., 2019; Unicef, 2022).

In correspondence with the aforementioned, various studies demonstrate that over the past decades, adolescents have been facing significant deteriorations in their mental health, particularly concerning anxiety and low self-esteem. Emotional intelligence (Collado-Soler et al., 2023; De la Barrera et al., 2023; Durlak et al., 2022; Gutiérrez-Cobo et al., 2023; Lea et al., 2023; Salavera & Usán, 2020), social networks (Gracia Granados et al., 2020; Mao et al., 2017; Melo, 2021; Patel & Binjola, 2020; Prats Fernández et al., 2018), and the practice of human values (Bilsky et al., 2013; Pérez-Fuentes et al., 2019; Schwartz, 2007), with a particular emphasis on the relationship among these three variables, play a significant role. Hence, there is a growing interest among academics, families, and stakeholders in well-being promotion to gain insights into this issue. These reasons underscore the importance of investigating this topic, which is the focus of this article, specifically addressing girls from low socioeconomic strata in two cities across two countries with emerging economies.

Emotional intelligence (EI) in adolescence

According to Mayer and Salovey (1997), EI is the capacity or ability of people to perceive, evaluate, understand, and assertively express emotions to promote their emotional and intellectual balance. For the cited authors, there are four levels of abilities to reason effectively about emotions and improve thinking in order to encourage academic growth and emotional development: the first is the level of perceiving emotions, which is the lowest through facial expressions and their meanings, the second level is directly related to the ability to facilitate thinking through the management of emotion, the third level is that of understanding that aims to label to establish relationships associated with changes in emotions and the fourth level consists of having the ability to control those emotions in oneself and others effectively.

On the other hand, for Mayer et al. (2008), EI includes motivations, mental abilities, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills, and personality traits. For Goleman (2012), EI is a compendium of skills that people develop to identify, understand, and manage their feelings and emotions in an assertive, empathetic, constructive, and self-motivated way. Also, EI is related to self-concept and people’s ability to assertively guide their emotions and therefore their behaviour (Esnaola et al., 2017; Lea et al., 2023). In this sense, the EI is very important in all stages of life, particularly in adolescence because it is a critical stage of life, which involves changes in physical and psychological development, such as the search for identity and autonomy, emotional reaction, and social interaction along with new cognitive skills (Coelho et al., 2016; Collado-Soler et al., 2023).

In this regard, EI is considered a key factor for the lives of adolescents because emotions are essential not only in their personal behaviours but also in their interpersonal relationships (Collado-Soler et al., 2023). Depending on how each adolescent handles the emotions she interacts with her peers, it affects her mental health and well-being (De la Barrera et al., 2023). Likewise, adolescents’ emotion management skills affect their academic performance (Blair et al., 2018) and anxiety levels (Durlak et al., 2022).

According to Vega et al. (2022) and Gómez-Baya et al. (2017), assertive adolescents with their EI present low levels of depression and anxiety and better psychosocial adjustment. They also report feeling happier (Abdollahi et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2020). In this sense, when adolescents improve their emotional skills, they can achieve a general balance of their emotional and interpersonal experiences and this leads to a more positive perception of their lives (Lea et al., 2023). In this regard, there is research that shows a direct positive relationship between EI and positive self-concept, self-confidence, and good academic performance in adolescents (Gutiérrez-Cobo et al., 2023; Salavera & Usán, 2020).

UNICEF (2022) states that, in general, a large part of mental health disorders in adolescents begin to manifest around the age of 14, and that these disorders can be overcome with good guidance in managing their emotions. For this reason, it calls on family members and people from academic institutions to contribute to developing in adolescents’ skills related to the management of affectivity, emotions, and mental health care.

In this same perspective, recent studies show emotional difficulties in the lives of adolescent girls caused by low levels of management of their emotions (Márquez & Long, 2021; Orben et al., 2022), a situation that has motivated the interest of several researchers to analyse the factors that lead adolescents to emotional instability and also those that can contribute to reducing these instabilities (Blasco-Belled et al., 2020; Diener et al., 2018).

In this regard, various investigations have identified family and people in educational centres (teachers and particularly friends) as the main sources of psychosocial support for adolescents with low EI skills (Azpiazu et al., 2023; Bokhorst et al., 2010; Esnaola et al., 2017; Lea et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2018). For this reason, developing skills in adolescents for adequate EI is essential since it allows them to face the challenges and opportunities of life, reduces stress, anxiety, and depression, and improves their interpersonal relationships (Usán Supervía et al., 2020); It facilitates learning processes, reduces violent behaviour, and reduces the consumption of alcohol and hallucinogenic drugs (Pérez Mármol et al., 2023).

Emotional intelligence and social networks

Another important aspect in the lives of adolescents is social networks, which have become part of their daily lives and are used to obtain, create, and share information, interact quickly, and with more people from different parts of the planet in real-time., distract oneself, express one’s potential, etc., but also isolate oneself from family and society, as an addictive means and generator of maladaptive behaviours (Mao et al., 2017; Prats Fernández et al., 2018).

Social media provides extensive opportunities for sharing emotional experiences, gaining insights into diverse social environments, influences, values, and broader cultural trends. Antheunis et al. (2016) discovered a positive association between social media use and friendship quality as well as social capital among early adolescents. However, the flip side reveals that the misuse of social media may result in adverse effects, including social isolation, insecurity, addiction, and challenges in emotion regulation. According to Piccerillo and Tescione (2023), concerns arise over the significant time young individuals spend on these platforms and its potential impact on various aspects of their lives, including emotional well-being, body image, physical activity levels, and real-life social interactions. Notably, the role of emotional intelligence emerges as crucial in assisting adolescents in navigating their use of social media.

Recent studies on social networks show that the uncontrolled use of these networks has become a risk factor for mental health in adolescents (Gracia Granados et al., 2020). There are various investigations that have identified a direct relationship between depressive symptoms and low self-esteem with the inappropriate (compulsive) use of social networks (Li et al., 2018; Vahedi & Zannella, 2019). According to Pontes et al. (2018), the greatest propensity for addiction to social networks occurs in adolescents who frequently use the greatest number of social networks (WhatsApp, Instagram, Tik-Tok, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, etc.). Social networks where information of various kinds is shared, including messages, photos, videos, etc., pertaining to life (Collado-Soler et al., 2023).

According to Carli et al. (2013), additive or dependent behaviour on social networks by many adolescents is significantly associated with disorders such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and obsessive symptoms. -compulsive and symptoms of hostility and aggression. For the author, these behaviours are largely due to poor management of EI by adolescents.

In summary, social networks are having different impacts (positive and negative) on the lives of adolescents who are the largest users of these networks and because these impacts are related to EI, it is important to understand how to take advantage of that intelligence to use networks for well-being and minimize negative effects (Melo, 2021; Patel & Binjola, 2020). On the other hand, the literature review does not show research that analyzes the type of content that is created and shared.

Emotional intelligence, social networks, and human values

An aspect closely related to EI and social networks is the principles or values on which adolescents are based, because these are the ones that guide their behaviour and decision-making (Bilsky et al., 2013; Pérez-Fuentes et al., 2019; Schwartz, 2007). In this sense, although, in general, research on human values has been increasing in recent decades, due to the implications that these have for people’s lives and for society (Bilsky et al., 2013; Páez Gallego et al., 2020), there are few studies on the topic that analyse the relationship between values and emotional states in adolescents (Bilsky et al., 2013). From this perspective According to Pérez-Fuentes et al. (2019), in adolescents there tends to be a positive relationship between behaviour based on values and their positive emotional states.

On the other hand, regarding social networks, values determine the type of messages that adolescents create and share on the social networks that they use and also, the type of messages they consult (Páez Gallego et al., 2020; Prats Fernández et al., 2018). People with solid principles or values are prone to create and share, as well as consult dignifying information that contributes to their own well-being and that of others (Prats Fernández et al., 2018).

Against this backdrop, this article aims to investigate the specific dynamics of emotional intelligence, social networks, and human values among adolescent girls from low socioeconomic strata in two cities across two countries with emerging economies. Our investigation is initiated by inquiring into the following hypotheses, setting the foundation for our exploration: i) There exists a correlation between the level of emotional intelligence and the degree of participation in social networks among adolescent girls. ii) Girls with higher scores in emotional intelligence will exhibit distinct interactions on social networks compared to those with lower scores. Iii) The type of content created on social networks is associated with variations in the practice of human values among adolescent girls. iv) The frequency and nature of content creation on social networks are related to the development and expression of prosocial behaviours and values among adolescent girls.

These hypotheses not only guide our investigation but also contribute to the broader discourse on the intricate interplay between emotional intelligence, social networks, and human values during adolescence. Understanding these relationships is pivotal for developing strategies that promote positive mental health and well-being in this crucial life stage.

Methodology

This research corresponds to a descriptive exploratory study that is supported by quantitative analysis.

Participants

The participants in this study comprised a sample of girls aged between 11 and 18, attending public schools in low socioeconomic strata in the cities of Bogotá, Colombia, and Chiclayo, Peru. For the participant selection process, over 600 girls were invited to voluntarily participate with the explicit consent of their parents or guardians. To maintain the utmost confidentiality, participants were assured through informed consent that their information would be handled anonymously, with data represented using codes rather than personally identifiable details. This commitment aligns with data protection regulations. The study commenced in March and concluded in June 2022, with participants completing the questionnaire over a four-month period.

The selection of only girls stems from the recognition that, while there is no consensus regarding differences in the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and social networks among adolescents (Jiménez-Boraita et al., 2020; Llamas-Díaz et al., 2023; Moshe et al., 2016), other studies do indicate significant distinctions. Jiménez-Boraita et al. (2020) posit that the female population tends to be more emotionally sensitive and, consequently, engages in a greater use of social networks than males. In a similar vein, Melguizo-Ibáñez et al. (2023) assert that during adolescence, females tend to exhibit more emotional states of anxiety, stress, and low self-concept than males. According to Ehmke (2020), the relationship between the use of social networks and levels of anxiety and decreased self-esteem tends to be higher in girls than in boys. This could be attributed to the fact that girls tend to socialize more than boys, particularly with other girls, as part of their identity development, rendering them significantly more vulnerable to the effects of social networks than boys.

It is worth noting that Bogotá (Colombia) and Chiclayo (Peru) are two cities where a considerable portion of the population, especially girls residing in areas classified as low socioeconomic strata, experience conditions of marginalization, poverty, social exclusion, a lack of various resources (economic, social, time availability, etc.), and face constant risks of various kinds.

Instrument

The instrument used to collect the information consisted of a questionnaire designed on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 points, where 1 represents total disagreement and 5 total agreements, according to the statements in each item evaluated. The questionnaire was made up of four sections related to preferred social networks (section A), the type of content created for social networks (section B), the TMMS emotional intelligence test (section C) and a test related to practice of human values (section D). The validation of the content of sections A and B was carried out with criteria based on usage trends in social networks.

The construction of items in Section A (Type of Social Network) was undertaken based on a comprehensive review of the literature on the topic, drawing extensively from the perspectives presented by Pontes et al. (2018), Vahedi and Zannella (2019), and Li et al. (2018). Similarly, the items in Section B were also developed through a literature review, with a specific focus on the insights provided by Collado-Soler et al. (2023).

For section C, the adapted TMMS questionnaire (Trait Meta-Mood Scale) was used, based on the original model of Salovey and Mayer, which consists of 24 items grouped into three factors, of which 8 items are directed towards the attention span of the own emotions, both feeling and adequately expressing emotions, 8 items- to assess the clarity and understanding of one’s own emotional states and 8 items focused on emotional repair, that is, on the ability to regulate one’s own emotional states.

It is important to clarify that, for the evaluation of EI, there are several instruments, those aimed at evaluating self-perception – instruments in which participants express their own perception of the abilities to express their emotions -, those aimed at evaluating performance – instruments where participants must solve problems with correct and incorrect answers (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2023) and mixed instruments – where participants express their self-perception and are also faced with solving problems (Koydemir & Schütz, 2012; Llamas-Díaz et al., 2023). From this perspective, for the purposes of this research, the self-perception approach was used and for that purpose, the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) was used as it is one of the most used scales to evaluate self-perceptions of EI in adolescents and adults (Salguero et al., 2010).

Section D was oriented to evaluate the practice of human values formed by 13 items focused on the analysis of the behaviour of people towards themselves and with others in relation to the respect and the treatment with other people, hard work and the concept of justice, among others. The items in this section were constructed based on a literature review focusing on human values in adolescence, particularly drawing from the perspectives outlined by Schwartz (2007). It is noteworthy that, prior to the administration of the data collection instrument, validation was conducted through its application to a pilot sample of 50 girls, with a profile identical to those participating in the study. Adjustments of various kinds were made to the final questionnaire used for data collection in this study based on the results obtained from the pilot sample.

As a whole, the questionnaire comprises 46 statements related to the 4 sections previously described and 5 statements concerning the place of birth, age, current school level and home structure and composition. It is worth noting that the application of the questionnaire was by virtual means.

The reliability of the questionnaire was examined, applying Cronbach’s Alpha index for sections B, C and D, obtaining an Alpha of 0.91, 0.94 and 0.95 respectively. These values indicate that the statements in each section of the questionnaire measure the intended variables.

The survey results may present bias inherent to the response to this type of statement, such as the way in which they are designed, unanticipated communication barriers, and subjectivity (Choi & Pak, 2005; Dlamini et al., 2022).

Descriptive analysis participants

The study participants are female students from schools in Colombia and Peru, between ages 8–18 from grades 3–11. From a total of 600 girls invited to participate voluntarily with the authorization of parents, school directors, and teachers, 491 of them participated in the study after learning about its objectives. Table 1 presents the sample profile of the girls participating in the study.

Table 1. Profile of the sample.

CHARACTERISTIC	FREQUENCY	RELATIVE FREQUENCY
Age
8	51	10.39%
9	25	5.09%
10	55	11.20%
11	72	14.66%
12	16	3.26%
13	65	13.24%
14	42	8.55%
15	91	18.53%
16	54	11%
17	14	2.85%
18	6	1.22%
Degree
Third	54	11.00%
Fourth	23	4.68%
Fifth	61	12.42%
Sixth	78	15.89%
Seventh	72	14.66%
Eighth	36	7.33%
ninth	54	11.00%
Tenth	80	16.29%
Eleven	33	6.72%
Country
Perú	301	61.30%
Colombia	190	38.70%
Lives with parents
Yes	417	84.93%
No	74	15.07%
Lives with brothers
Yes	382	77.80%
No	109	22.20%

For this sample of students, the most used social networks were WhatsApp (70.67%), Tiktok (47.66%), YouTube (42.36%), Facebook (41.96%), and Instagram (33.4%); to a lesser extent the use of Twitter (8.55%) and Kwai (8.15%) is reported. Likewise, it is found that 37.88% make use of a single social network, compared to 31.77% who use two or three different networks and 28.51% who use more than three social networks. Finally, 1.83% say they do not use social networks, which, although it would be expected to be minors, corresponds to 9 students, one for each grade from third to tenth.

On the other hand, the students surveyed make more frequent use of social networks to create content related to funny videos, videos with animals, choreography, and music videos. Less frequent is the creation of conventional video scenes and video games.

The TMMS-24 Emotional Intelligence test presents results for three factors: Attention, Clarity, and Repair. Regarding these dimensions, it is found that 56.7% pay little or too much attention to feelings, 36% have a low understanding of their emotional states and 26% do not regulate them adequately.

Data processing

The literature presents mixed evidence regarding the relevance of applying parametric tests for ordinal variables (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Boone & Boone, 2012; Norman, 2010). For this reason, the processing of the data was carried out through factorial analysis based on principal components, with orthogonal rotation under the Varimax method (Loehlin & Beaujean, 2016, p. 192) and the identification of factors with eigenvalues greater than one (1) according to the Kaiser criteria (Loehlin & Beaujean, 2016, p. 184).

Before carrying out the factorial analysis, the Barlett and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin sphericity contrast tests were reviewed. Table 2 shows the consistency analysis of each of the areas evaluated.

Table 2. Consistency analysis.

Survey topic	Number of questions	Range	Cronbah’s Alpha	KMO
Networks	7	0–1
Content	8	1–5	0.91	0.93
Emotional intelligence	24	1–5	0.95	0.9
Values	13	1–5	0.9	0.96

Each factor from the previous analysis was compared between groups referring to age, the grade they are in, if they live with their parents and siblings, preferred social networks, and the country in which they are located. The Shapiro-Wilk normality test (Shapiro & Wilk, 1965) was applied in each case, finding that only in 8% of the cases was their evidence to support the normality hypothesis. Subsequently, the equality of variances between the different groups was evaluated using the Levene test (Levene, 1960).

Faced with large samples, the parametric tests of interest are robust when the assumption of normality is violated (Hecke, 2012; Mooi et al., 2018, p. 166). However, this work also makes use of a non-parametric test in the variables that do not present normality, in order to assess the robustness of the results. Therein, alongside the one-way ANOVA analysis, this work implemented the non-parametric Mann-Whitney (Mann & Whitney, 1947) and Kruskal-Wallis tests.

Results

Factor analysis results

Content (section B): To identify the main dimensions that make up the content created; the Exploratory Factor Analysis of section B was carried out. The KMO gave 0.93 and the Barlett sphericity test was significant at 99%.

The analysis yielded to a single factor that explained 62% of the total variance. Table 3 shows the main components of content creation in social networks, the values in the table refer to the rotated factor loads, which the closer to one (1) indicating a greater relationship between the variable and the factor.

Table 3. Main components of content creation on social networks.

Variable	Factor1
Create Video Games	0,67
Create choreographies and music videos	0,81
Create Conventional Video Scenes	0,79
Create funny Videos	0,83
Create Tutorials	0,86
Create Videos with animals	0,80
Create Video series	0,85
Create other content	0,66

TMMS Emotional Intelligence (section C): The emotional intelligence test corresponds to TMMS-24, which contemplates dimensions of attention, clarity, and understanding of one’s own emotional states and their repair. To identify the main dimensions that make up the content created, the Confirmatory Factor Analysis of section C was carried out. The KMO gave 0.95 and the Barlett sphericity test was significant at 99%.

The analysis yielded to three factors (one for each dimension of emotional intelligence: attention, clarity, and comprehension) that explain 64.6% of the total variance. Table 4 shows the main components of emotional intelligence and its classification by factor or dimension.

Table 4. Main components of each dimension of emotional intelligence.

	Ítems	Factor1	Factor2	Factor3
1	I pay a lot of attention to feelings.	0,61
2	I usually worry a lot about how I feel.	0,64
3	I usually spend time thinking about my emotions.	0,67
4	I think it is worth paying attention to my emotions and state of mind.	0,62
5	I let my feelings affect my thoughts.	0,55
6	I think about my state of mind constantly.	0,77
7	I often think about my feelings.	0,77
8	I pay close attention to how I feel.	0,73
9	I am clear about my feelings.		0,63
10	I can often define my feelings.		0,70
11	I almost always know how I feel.		0,71
12	I usually know my feelings about people.		0,62
13	I often realize my feelings in different situations.		0,54
14	I can always say how I feel.		0,78
15	Sometimes I can tell what my emotions are.		0,80
16	I can come to understand my feelings.		0,74
17	Although sometimes I feel sad, I usually have an optimistic outlook.			0,72
18	Even if I feel bad, I try to think of pleasant things.			0,84
19	When I’m sad, I think of all the pleasures in life.			0,66
20	I try to think positive thoughts, even if I feel bad.			0,81
21	If I think too much about things, complicating them, I try to calm down.			0,66
22	I worry about having a good mood.			0,60
23	I have a lot of energy when I feel happy.			0,51
24	When I’m angry I try to change my mood.			0,51

These three factors effectively correspond to the three dimensions evaluated by the test:

Factor 1: attention (items 1 to 8).

Factor 2: clarity (items 9 to 16).

Factor 3: repair (item 17 to 24).

The practice of human values (section D): To identify the main dimensions that make up the content created, the Exploratory Factor Analysis of section D was carried out. The KMO gave 0.96 and the Barlett sphericity test was significant at 99%.

The analysis yielded a single factor that explained 63% of the total variance. Table 5 shows the main components related to human values.

Table 5. Main components related to human values.

Variable	Factor1
I respect and take care of other people’s things.	0,84
I like to treat other people well.	0,86
I help people who require my support.	0,85
I am fair to myself and to other people.	0,81
I take responsibility for my actions.	0,86
I respect the opinions of other people who do not agree with my way of thinking.	0,74
I work hard to achieve what I want.	0,77
I know that to be a better person, I need to learn things every day.	0,87
I avoid complaining about what they don’t give me and I prefer to do things by myself.	0,68
I spread messages that are important to other people.	0,55
I respect people from other cultures (other countries).	0,83
I care about caring for nature and protecting the environment.	0,84
I worry about protecting the good customs of our country (music, food, the way of dressing, etc.).	0,77

Results comparison between two groups

For the cases in which the two groups were compared, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test was performed for each variable in the different groups evaluated. In its entirety, the tests show non-normality in the evaluated data.

Social networks

Given the non-normality, the Mann Whitney test was performed to compare two groups, those who use each social network versus those who do not. The variables to be compared in each case correspond to the factors found in the previous section: Content, Clarity, Repair, Attention, and Values. Table 6 presents the p-value of the test for each case, which, taking a significance level of 5%, indicate that in those values less than 0.05 there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis of equality in the medians of the two groups.

Table 6. Mann Whitney P-values test for social networks.

Analysis factor	Mann Whitney test (p -value)
	Facebook	Instagram	Youtube	Tiktok	Twitter	WhatsApp	Kwai
Content	0,95	0,03	0,54	0,01	0,01	0,13	0,69
Clarity	0,00	0,00	0,38	0,01	0,13	0,08	0,72
Repair	0,12	0,00	0,79	0,00	0,38	0,38	0,09
Attention	0,37	0,03	0,96	0,07	0,32	0,08	0,08
Values	0,03	0,01	0,60	0,08	0,42	0,58	0,10

In general, it is found that, for the social networks WhatsApp, YouTube and Kwai, there is evidence that supports equality in each factor, between those who use it and those who do not. On the contrary, for Instagram, there seem to be differences between those who use it and those who do not, for all the study factors.

On the other hand, Tiktok seems to present statistically significant differences in Content, Clarity and Repair; while Facebook presents them in Clarity and Values. Finally, Twitter only presents differences in Content.

Parents, siblings, country, and values

Likewise, the Mann Whitney test is applied to compare between those who live with their parents and those who do not, those who live with their siblings and those who do not, those who are in Colombia and those in Peru, as well as those who are under the average of the Values factor and those who are above it. Table 7 shows the corresponding p-values.

Table 7. Mann Whitney P-values test.

analysis factor	Mann-Whitney test (p-value)
	Live with their parents	Live with siblings	Country	Average Values factor
Content	0,37	0,90	0,46	0,05
Clarity	0,57	0,85	0,00	0,00
Repair	0,52	0,41	0,00	0,00
Attention	0,81	0,96	0,06	0,04
Values	0,32	0,35	0,00

For the first two cases, since no value is less than 0.05, no evidence of significant differences between groups was found. But it is worth clarifying that these groups present a significant imbalance, since 85% live with their parents and 78% live with siblings.

Regarding the country in which they are located, there seem to be differences in Clarity, Repair, Attention and Values, but not in Content. Finally, when comparing those who are above and below the average in the factor values, it is likely to find differences in all factors.

Results comparison between three groups

For cases in which we can compare more than two groups, a normality test was first performed. Most of the data do not show normality. For this reason, the Kruskal-Wallis test is applied, a non-parametric association test, that is, it does not assume distribution. However, in an exercise to test the robustness of the results, one-way ANOVA analysis is applied.

Age and school grade

In general, the results presented are robust for both tests, except for the Values variable, which, in the different cases analysed with age and school grade, show differences with Kruskal-Wallis, but not with ANOVA. Since the test does not show normality, the analysis emphasizes the first test; however, this difference may be due to response bias to the type of items evaluated.

Table 8 presents the p-values for both the oneway-ANOVA parametric test and the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test. In both cases, the null hypothesis suggests equality in the means of the two groups. Therefore, values less than 0.05 indicate possible differences between the groups compared.

Table 8. Kruskal-wallis test and oneway ANOVA P-values.

analysis factor	Age		grouped age		school grade		school grade grouped
	Oneway ANOVA	Kruskal Wallis	Oneway ANOVA	Kruskal Wallis	Oneway ANOVA	Kruskal Wallis	Oneway ANOVA	Kruskal Wallis
Content	0,35	0,30	0,79	0,82	0,19	0,15	0,54	0,51
Clarity	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00
Repair	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00	0,00
Attention	0,28	0,48	0,15	0,33	0,14	0,27	0,22	0,43
Values	0,23	0,00	0,08	0,00	0,48	0,00	0,14	0,00

When analysing the results by age and school grade, it is plausible that there are significant differences in Clarity, Repair and Values, but not in Content and Attention. The results are maintained when the data are grouped by age into three groups: from 8 to 10, from 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18. As well as when grouped by school grades: between 3 and 5, between 6 and 8, between 9 and 11.

The number of networks

In an additional exercise, we wanted to compare groups according to the number of social networks they use (between 0 and 7), finding possible significant differences in Clarity and Attention. Likewise, they were grouped according to the use of networks in: use of a social network, use 2 or 3 networks, and use 4 or more social networks; where apparently there are significant differences in all factors (Clarity, Repair, Attention and Values), except Content.

Discussion

Regarding the analysis of the level of emotional intelligence management, a quite relevant result is evident at a general level, analysed from the dimensions of attention, clarity, and repair, especially in comparison with the type of content girls create. Regarding the dimensions of analysis, the average of the population focuses on the level of clarity with a significant percentage followed by a medium level of emotional attention and not so much in regulation. It can be inferred from this that the population that creates any type of content for social networks claims to have a higher level of emotional control.

These results coincide with those found by De la Barrera et al. (2023), Lea et al. (2023) and (Zhao et al., 2020), that is, an adequate management when creating and sharing content for social networks, however, there is no difference in terms of Content, Clarity, Attention, Repair, and Values for those who use WhatsApp, YouTube and Kwai from those who don’t. The level of selection that is given to the type of platform used can indicate the level of relevance that is given to the use and dissemination of content, being in descending order according to their order of preference, WhatsApp, Tik tok and Facebook, the most preferred at the primary level, without needing to be the only ones used, either to a greater or lesser extent.

It was evidenced that the creation of tutorials and video series are more preferred by girls, followed by funny videos and the creation of videos related to choreography and music videos. These presented results of greater acceptance by the study population, evidenced in the most used platforms for this population (Tiktok’s and Facebook Reels mainly), which may indicate that it is a response to the high consumption of this type of content, the low-cost and production, along with the ease generated by their creation (design tools from the same platforms).

The use of social networks for the creation of content is undoubtedly one of the phenomena that have marked the adolescent population the most today, both for those who live with their parents 85%, and for those who also live with siblings (78%), according to the results of the present study; through which it can be seen that a high degree of education and regulation of emotions is still required about the type and quality of content that is created and shared on social networks (Páez Gallego et al., 2020; Prats Fernández et al., 2018). A constant and responsible awareness is recommended for adequate development in the regulation of emotional intelligence and continuous accompaniment and guidance for the proper use of social networks in the adolescent population (Azpiazu et al., 2023; Esnaola et al., 2017; Lea et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2018).

Regarding the level of main dimensions that make up the content created in the formation of values, in general, it can be said that those that scored the most were those of knowing that, to be a better person, I need to learn things every day, I like to try good to other people, I assume responsibilities for my actions and help people who require my support, which allows us to understand that through the use of technology and social networks it is possible to contribute significantly and innovatively to the strategy of formation in values in the students (Bilsky et al., 2013; Páez Gallego et al., 2020).

Among the categories that suggest a special degree of attention, it stands out that I disseminate messages that are important to other people, I avoid complaining about what they do not give me and I prefer to do things by myself, I respect the opinions of other people who do not agree I agree with my way of thinking and work hard to achieve what I want. This category highlights the importance of learning in the educational context since it is there where it can be seen that the subjects arrive without some socio-emotional competencies, therefore, it is necessary to provide the necessary support tools to students for proper functioning in social contexts (Páez Gallego et al., 2020; Prats Fernández et al., 2018).

In summary, the study shows the importance of learning about emotional intelligence, the use that young people make of social networks, and the values or principles that guide their behaviour, to support and guide them in the moments that are required for their well-being. Good psych affective and pedagogical guidance in stages of vulnerability such as adolescence, in which there is clear emotional, social, and contextual immaturity, is essential to help young people have a rewarding and dignified life (Lea et al., 2023).

Conclusions

Based on the results of this study, it was analysed adolescent student girls, the ability of them in emotional regulation, and their relationship with the practice of values regarding the creation and socialization of content on social networks to identify the characteristics of this relationship and the cognitive aspects associated with them. The existence of a positive relationship was identified between emotional management, especially in the category of clarity, and the creation and dissemination of content on social networks. With this, it can be affirmed that, when dealing with intense emotions, there is to a lesser extent a level of regulation in the categories of attention and emotional repair, respectively.

On the other hand, it was also possible to identify that the social network in which content is shared the most is WhatsApp, followed by Tik tok, and Facebook, these being the most preferred at the primary level, which may indicate that this is a response to the high consumption of this type of content, the low cost and production and the ease generated by their creation. However, these are not the only social networks used, either to a greater or lesser extent. It was also evidenced that the majority use only one social network. The social network used to a lesser degree for the creation of content by the study participants is Twitter and Kwai.

As for the most widely accepted results in its creation, it was evidenced that tutorials and video series followed by funny videos together with the creation of videos related to choreography and music videos, are preferred by part of the study population.

The creation of content more correlated with social behaviour (human values) was evidenced that among those with the highest score are ‘I know that, to be a better person, I need to learn things every day’ and secondly ‘I like to treat people well.’ other people“and that among the categories that scored the least was ‘I spread messages that are important to other people’ followed by ‘I avoid complaining about what they don’t give me and I prefer to do things by myself’.

According to the results, it is considered important for those who are in the field of training girls, to know this relationship for appropriate development and orientation in emotional regulation and a guidance aimed at an adequate use of social networks in the adolescent population. In addition, these results are a reference for decision-making by the directors of academic institutions regarding the emotional behaviour of girls and the use of social networks by them.

The study’s findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the relationship among emotional intelligence, social networks, and the practice of human values, elucidating the role of this nexus in the behaviour of girls within the context of low socioeconomic strata in cities of emerging economies. These cities are marked by conditions of marginalization, thus characterized by a high degree of vulnerability.

Furthermore, this study provides empirical evidence that adds to the discourse on emotional intelligence in emerging economy contexts where prior research on the subject was lacking. It explores the nexus between this theoretical framework and the practice of human values among girls, who constitute both participants and subjects of the study.

In terms of practical implications, the study’s results furnish empirical evidence for educators, academic administrators, parents, and governmental authorities responsible for promoting education and the well-being of youth. This evidence supports the design of strategies that integrate emotional intelligence, the use of social networks, and the practice of human values. Such strategies aim to foster the well-being of girls, with the overarching goal of ultimately enhancing societal well-being in the medium term.

Limitations

The selection of girls solely from a single socioeconomic stratum (lower-middle) in only two cities provides valuable insights into the subject within the context of girls from those cities in that stratum. However, the results may not be generalizable to girls from other strata or cities within the reference countries. Additionally, the use of an emotional intelligence (EI) instrument that assesses the girls’ self-perception of their EI introduces a limitation. The study results do not conclusively demonstrate that the girls truly behave in the manner they self-reported regarding EI but rather provide an understanding of their self-perceived EI.

In summary, given the practical difficulty of conducting a random, representative, and stratified sampling, the study results provide insights into the studied variables within a specific context and for the studied population. However, they are not generalizable to different contexts or to individuals with profiles differing from those of the study participants.

Suggestions for future research

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the developmental aspects identified in this study, it is advisable for future research to undertake longitudinal studies. This entails tracking the evolution of emotional intelligence, values, and social network behaviour among adolescent girls over an extended period. By scrutinizing how these factors evolve over time, researchers can unveil valuable insights into their long-term impact on well-being.

Moreover, for improved generalizability, it is suggested to extend the research beyond the current focus on lower-middle socioeconomic strata. Inclusive participation of girls from various socioeconomic backgrounds and diverse cultural settings will offer a more holistic perspective on the interplay between emotional intelligence, values, and social media usage among adolescent populations.

Simultaneously, exploring the pivotal role of parents and educators in shaping emotional intelligence and values among adolescent girls is crucial. Subsequent research endeavours should delve into how parental guidance and educational strategies influence the emotional well-being and online behaviour of girls. This understanding is pivotal for the development of comprehensive support systems.

In the pursuit of these future directions, researchers have the opportunity to build upon the current study’s foundation, addressing its limitations and amplifying the research’s impact on the well-being and development of adolescent girls across diverse contexts.

Acknowledgments

Infinite gratitude is extended to the Minuto de Dios University Corporation - UNIMINUTO, Universidad de La Sabana and Universidad Católica Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo for the joint possibility for this study to be carried out. To the students who participated in the study and to those who supported with their knowledge and experience for the development of the study on the analysis of the ability to manage emotional intelligence, social behaviour, and creation and dissemination of content on social networks in girls of school age.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose in relation to the submitted manuscript.