Adapted Physical Education/Activity
Examining Inclusive Physical Activity Programing and Motor Skills Pre/Post COVID-19
Karl-Richard Hennebach1, Allison Tsuchida, John Solomon, Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate changes in motor skill development and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during an inclusive after-school physical activity program, before and after COVID-19. The need for this study was highlighted by research findings which suggest that children’s physical activity behavior was negatively affected by COVID-19 restrictions (Rossi et al. 2021). One could presume that children who experienced a more sedentary lifestyle prior to enrolling in the program might show different outcomes compared to previous peers. Considering Clark and Metcalfe’s (2002) mountain of motor development, a potential learning pause in the developmental process of the fundamental patterns period may delay context-specific movements. The purpose of this study was 1) to investigate baseline differences of motor skill performance of youth participants in the P.L.A.Y program compared to Pre COVID-19 participants, 2) to understand the difference in TGMD-3 post scores among the two groups (pre and post COVID-19), when controlling for pre TGMD-3 scores, attendance, age, gender, and length, and 3) to examine the moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels of youth during the different P.L.A.Y. program years (pre and post COVID-19).
Method: The sample of this study consists of 82 children (37 pre, and 45 post COVID-19) aged 3-10 years old. The program was performed once a week for one hour during a 12- (2019) and 10- (2022 and 2023) week period. A pre and post test of gross motor development (TGMD-3) was conducted by trained undergraduate kinesiology students to determine locomotor and ball skills. Raw TGMD-3 scores were scaled and standardized. ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometers were used to measure the physical activity level percentage.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and an ANCOVA were employed as part of the data analysis. Initial-tests revealed that locomotor skills (LS) (t(80) = 3.011, p = 0.03 (Cohen’s d) = 0.668) were significantly different pre and post COVID-19, while ball skills (BS) (t(80) = 0.855, p = 0.395 (Cohen’s d) = 0.190) were not. ANCOVAs revealed that when controlling for TGMD-3 pre scores, attendance, age, and gender, the TGMD-3 post scores were significantly different from pre to post intervention for both LS F(5,80) = 17.785, p = <0.001) and BS (F(5,80) = 20.455, p = <0.001). Additionally-tests revealed that the average MVPA percentage (t(102) = 4.675, p = <0.001 (Cohen’s d) = 0.970) was significantly different pre and post COVID-19. Individual weeks were also examined and will be reported.
Conclusions: A significant lower baseline of locomotor skills in post-COVID-19 youth, compared to their pre-COVID-19 peers, implies a need to closely monitor impacted children to ensure age-sufficient motor development levels in future years. The improvement of motor skills (LS and BS) largely depends on pre-existing motor abilities and age, which stresses the importance of an early intervention and proper curriculum to avoid delayed development. Due to the significantly decreased MVPA levels in post COVID-19 participants, an increase in the program duration may be beneficial. Additionally, the relationship between MVPA and motor skills needs to be investigated.
Fight, Climb, Dance: Exploring the Psychophysiological Frontiers of Therapeutic Physical Activity for Youth with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities
Jonathan T. Drummond1, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: Research and outcome-based instructional approaches are broadening our understanding of the psychophysiological and therapeutic value of physical activity (PA), and its most potent attributes, for those with neurodevelopmental disabilities (ND). PA is associated with decreased obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, depression, anxiety, and improved mood state and quality of life. Emerging evidence over the past 3-5 years further suggests psychological benefits are achieved, in part, by activity-driven improvements to executive function. Moving with thought matters; this may be especially important for youth with ND.
Method: This effort reports on quantitative and qualitative findings from more than 100 hours of participant (coaching)/observer work with 100+ youth and young adults in adaptive martial arts, climbing, and dance in 3 states across a span of 12 months. Lessons derived from the University of Kentucky Human Development Institute’s work with the Adaptive Martial Arts Association to establish national guidelines, principles encoded in Spectrum SKILLZ martial arts programming, and practicum experience as a 2022-2023 LEND (Leadership Education in Neurodevelopmental and related Disabilities) fellow are incorporated. Content from assisting (and conversations with) adaptive martial arts, climbing, and dance experts and instructors is referenced as well.
Analysis/Results: The three sequenced activities brought about, to varying degrees, improvements in: social/behavioral/adaptive skills, use and application of those skills, cognitive engagement, self-control, the ability to accept and employ directions, reduction in impulsivity/hyperactivity, improved communication with peers and coaches, better collaborative problem-solving, greater attentive focus/attention to instruction, improved academic performance, improved mood, more confidence, and feelings of achievement, joy, and happiness. Physically, improvements in mobility, dynamic movement, and strength/stability were observed.
Conclusions: A robust case is made that 1) sequenced PA has unique psychophysiological benefit for those with ND; 2) sequenced PA produces outcomes and benefits consistent with executive function enhancement and mood elevation; 3) open (vice closed) PA and skills may be of greatest therapeutic value and generalization to independent daily living; and 4) principled approaches, based on experience matured in adaptive martial arts, climbing, and dance subcultures, provide insight for the advancement of research and the therapeutic use and application of open, sequenced PA. Future research directions are discussed.
Occupational Socialization of Adapted Physical Education/Adapted Physical Activity Doctoral Students
Paul R. Malinowski1, Wesley J. Wilson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Kevin Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; Paul H. Warner, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Peter Rifenburg, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Occupational socialization (OS) is a theory that describes how professionals in physical education (PE) are recruited, prepared for their roles, and influenced by socializing agents and institutions throughout their careers (Templin et al., 2017). Scholars have used this theory to study PE teachers, adapted PE teachers, and students in such teacher education programs (Wilson & Richards, 2020). To date, however, no scholars have used OS to explore the experiences of doctoral students being prepared in adapted physical education and activity (APEPA). Understanding these experiences could be beneficial for doctoral program leaders who are responsible for recruiting and preparing future disciplinary stewards (Golde & Walker, 2006) of the APEPA profession. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the OS experiences of graduate students who are enrolled in APEPA doctoral training programs at US institutions of higher education.
Method: A purposeful sampling method was used to recruit doctoral students (n = 25, 17 female) from eight US-based terminal degree programs that specialize in APEPA. Participants engaged in data collection procedures which included critical incident reflections and in-depth, semi-structured interviews that were grounded in OS theory. Multiple critical incident reflections and interviews were conducted with each participant at different points throughout their doctoral education.
Analysis/Results: Critical incident reflections and interview transcripts were analyzed through collaborative qualitive analysis (Richards & Hemphill, 2018). Generally, the participants in this study discussed their motives for pursuing doctoral programming as well as key agents of socialization that helped to guide and support them along their journey into and through doctoral education. Three themes emerged during data analysis: (a) early socialization experiences foster a relatively positive, but limited initial impression of PE and PA; (b) socializing agents from the disability community encourage entry into doctoral training, and (c) relationships with socializing agents provide layer of support during doctoral education.
Conclusions: The participants in this study generally corroborate and expand upon the findings reported in previous OS research (Holland & Haegele, 2020; Richards et al., 2017). Firsthand experiences in PE and PA during youth tend to be remembered positively by APEPA doctoral students; however, these experiences do not necessarily lead them toward the APEPA profession. Instead, many of the participants did not find this career trajectory until they were further along in their OS. Individuals from the disability community, cohort members, and faculty advisors represent impactful socializing agents that influence the decision to pursue an APEPA terminal degree and the relationships that develop within such programs. Future research, particularly on the OS experiences of APEPA doctoral students that attend higher education institutions outside of the US, is needed to assess the external validity of the findings within this investigation.
Physical Educators’ Socialization and Self-efficacy Toward the Behavior Management of Students with Disabilities
Chloe Simpson1, California Polytechnic State University, Pomona; Andrea Taliaferro, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: Although studies have evaluated how physical educators learn behavior management, little effort has been made to identify the socializing experiences and sources of self-efficacy that influence how physical educators approach the behavior management of students with disabilities (SWD). The purpose of this study was to understand how physical educators develop self-efficacy toward the behavior management of SWD throughout the phases of occupational socialization theory.
Method: Data for the mixed-method study included 85 U.S. public (K-12) physical educators who completed a survey that collected demographic information and responses to the Teaching Students with Disabilities Efficacy Scale (Solomon & Scott, 2013). The sample was predominately white (80%) and averaged 41.48 years of age (SD = 10.75), with participants’ years of teaching experience ranging from 1 to 48 years (m = 14.47; SD = 10.28). A purposive subsample of nine participants in early (n = 3), mid- (n = 3), and later (n = 3) career stages partook in a semi-structured interview focusing on their self-efficacy toward the behavior management of SWD.
Analysis/Results: Findings revealed that age rs (83) = 0.22, p = 0.04. and years of teaching experience rs (83) = 0.23, p = 0.04 were weakly correlated with self-efficacy scores. Further, years of teaching experience significantly predicted self-efficacy, F (2, 81) = 3.25, p = 0.04. Those with more hours of professional development had significantly higher levels of self-efficacy, H(5) = 14.52, p = .01. Three themes were constructed representing significant findings within each phase of socialization: (1) out of sight, out of mind; (2) bare minimum basics; and (3) building a toolbox.
Conclusions: Findings suggest a need for greater attention to teacher induction programs and internal mentoring systems to ease the reality shock experienced by novice physical educators.
The Effects of Parent-mediated Remote Yoga Intervention on Quality of Life in Children with Autism and Their Parents
Yu Song1, Jimei University; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) negatively affects the quality of life in children with autism and their families. Parent-mediated interventions (PMI), which are evidence-based practice strategies involving active participation of parents, refer to parents implementing one or more evidence-based practices (EBP) for children with autism under the guidance of trained professionals in natural environments such as home and community settings. This mode of parent training has been shown to benefit children’s generalization of learned skills and parents’ mastery of intervention strategies, leading to improved quality of life for both children and parents. In the light of global COVID-19 pandemic, some scholars have attempted to provide remote training to parents to guide physical activities for their children with autism at home, but there is few research exploring the impact of this intervention mode on their quality of life. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a 9-week parent-mediated remote yoga intervention on the quality of life in children with autism and their parents.
Method: A pre-post control group experimental design was used to evaluate the effects of the parent-mediated remote yoga intervention. Twenty-seven families (children mean age = 5.48 ± 1.35) were enrolled in the study and assigned to an experimental group (n = 12) or control group (n = 15). The 9-week intervention included children and their parents participating in remote yoga exercises at least once a week (remote synchronous parent training) and parents engaging in online self-directed learning of relevant guidance strategies (remote asynchronous parent training). Furthermore, all autistic families followed their initial intervention plan and did not participate in any other physical activity intervention. The Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQoL) and WHO Quality of Life-BREF version (WHOQOL-BREF) were used to assess the quality of life in children with autism and their parents before and after the intervention. A 2 (time) × 2 (group) repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted to examine the change of quality of life.
Analysis/Results: (1) Repeated measure ANOVA tests on PedsQoL revealed significant interaction [F(1, 25)=8.80, P<0.01, partial η2=0.20] and time effect on social domain. While children in both groups exhibited improvement on the social domain after a 9-week intervention, children in the experimental group [F(1, 25) = 40.51, P < 0.001, partial η2=0.62] showed stronger progress than those in the control group [F(1, 25)=7.12, P < 0.05, partial η2=0.22]. (2) Repeated measure ANOVA tests on WHOQOL-BREF revealed significant interaction [F(1, 25) = 10.16, P < 0.01, partial η2=0.30] on general quality of life. Only parents of the experimental group demonstrated a significant change on general quality of life after a 9-week intervention [F(1, 25) = 8.62, P < 0.01, partial η2 = 0.27].
Conclusions: The finding supports the efficacy of parent-mediated remoted yoga intervention in improving the quality of life in autistic children and their parents. Yoga was discovered to be a reciprocal physical activity formation for parent-child dyads who participated to improve their quality of life. Other forms of physical activity interventions in parent training may be investigated in future parent-mediated intervention studies.
The Relationships between Motor Ability and Core Symptoms in ASD Children
Yanli Pang1, Central China Normal University
Background/Purpose: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by deficits in social skills, communication and repetitive or restricted interests. To date, several studies have revealed that motor impairments are prevalent in ASD children and persistent across age and there were correlation between gross motor ability and social function. However, the evidence for specific associations between motor ability and ASD symptomatology is less conclusive. So the current study was to explore the relationships between motor and core symptoms of autism.
Method: A total of 50 children (41 boys, 9 girls; mean age of 6.74 ± 1.15) with a clinical diagnosis of autism were recruited from a local autism center in Wuhan, China. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2 (Movement-ABC-2) was used to assess motor skills, which included 3 different constructs: fine motor (manual dexterity), gross motor (aiming and catching), and static and dynamic balance. The higher the score, the better of the motor ability. Furthermore, The Chinese version of Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) was used to evaluate the severity of ASD symptomatology, which included 3 domains: reciprocal social interaction, communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. The higher the scores, the higher severity of ASD symptomatology. The relationships between motor skills and core symptoms were estimated by Pearson correlation.
Analysis/Results: 1) There was no significant relationship between the total score of Movement-ABC-2 and SCQ (p > 0.05). 2)Reciprocal social interaction was significantly negative related to the Movement-ABC-2, ball skills and balance (r =–.398, p < 0.001; r = –.341, p < 0.05; r = –.379, p < 0.001, respectively). 3) There were no significant relationships between motor ability and other core symptoms (p > 0.05).
Conclusions: In this study, the results showed that there was no direct relationship between motor skill deficits and autism symptomology, but those children whom with weaker gross motor and balance skills have greater reciprocal social interaction skill deficits. Further research should consider intervention on balance and gross motor skills to facilitate their improvement of reciprocal social interaction.
Theoretical Framework of SSB Perspective Taking Instrument
Aubrey Hope Shaw1, Sharon Kay StollF, University of Idaho; Jennifer M Beller, St. Mary’s Parish School; Elaine Foster, Idaho State University
Background/Purpose: Even though laws have existed for 50 years, students with physical disabilities are not wholly included in the physical education classroom. Research is clear that an inclusive perspective and attitude by the physical education instructor decides if inclusion exists. Cognitive dissonance changes attitudes, but only if the intervention follows clear theory of moral reasoning and practice. To measure change demands effective measurement tools. However, instruments to measure inclusive perspective taking are lacking. Hence, a specific tool to measure attitude and an inclusive perspective is needed.
The purpose of this study was to develop an instrument that produces valid and reliable data to measure pre-service teachers’ perspective of including or excluding individuals with physical disabilities in abled-bodied physical activity classrooms.
Method: Building on theory and three years of data from teacher descriptions and concerns, the SSB, a perspective taking inventory, was developed. Twelve scenarios were placed in three categories. Category 1 focused on perceived teacher competency affecting inclusionary practice. Category 2 covered teacher perceived worry that able-bodied students would suffer if students with physical disabilities were included. Category 3 included perceived teacher concern that students with physical disabilities would be injured if included. In all scenarios a moral value was in juxtaposition against a social value. That is, perceived level of harm rubbed against justice/inclusion. Scenarios were less than 150 words, with an introduction, the problem (a social value against a moral value), and a statement of response to the scenario. The reader rated the acceptability of the response on a 5-point Likert scale: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree. Face validity was established with three experts in moral development who read the scenarios and agreed that each involved a moral dilemma. Content validity was established by using Stoll and Associates templates of moral values scenarios, with a social value in conflict with a moral value.
Analysis/Results: Seventeen students took the 12-question inventory. The overall Cronbach Alpha was .92. Sixteen weeks later, the same group took the instrument a second time with a .90 Cronbach Alpha. Subcategory 1 had a Cronbach Alpha of .89 and .73. Subcategory 2 had a Cronbach Alpha of .75 and .7 and subcategory 3, .68 and .71.
Conclusions: In examining the data, all category 1 questions correlated to each other significantly between .53 to .77. This suggests these questions reflect perceived instructor competency. In category 2, three questions correlated significantly between .49 and .74. Question 6 did not correlate, which suggests question 6 may be asking something different about perceived worry for the abled bodied experience. In category 3, questions 1 and 4 significantly correlated at .53 and questions 2 and 3 correlated significantly at .53 to each other. This data suggests category 3 reflects questions related to perceived worry of injury. r2 for all data ranged between 29% to 59% except question 6 which had an r2 of 1%. Data from the SSB Perspective Taking Instrument shows strong, promising validity and reliability.
Unveiling Ableism: How Disability Still Leads to Marginalization of Children in Physical Education Spaces
Scott McNamaraF1, Patricia Craig, University of New Hampshire; Megan Henly, Institute on Disability; Jill Gravink, Northeast Passage
Background/Purpose: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) stipulates that children receiving an individualized education program (IEP) are entitled to specially designed physical education, commonly referred to as adapted physical education (APE), if deemed appropriate. Despite this legislation, disabled children still experience numerous barriers to engagement in physical education and APE (e.g., limited budgets, lack of trained staff, bullying). These barriers present substantial risk for the development of health-compromising secondary conditions among disabled children and perpetuate ableism norms and discrimination. Numerous structural barriers inherent in the public school system constrain the delivery of APE services to children, including a lack of understanding and prioritization of these services by school administrators, the special education team, and parents; and a lack of qualified professionals to deliver these services. These barriers are problematic, as APE services provide children the necessary adaptations or modifications to successfully access the physical education curriculum and the positive outcomes associated with engagement in this curriculum (e.g., improved health, higher quality of life). The purpose of this study was to examine the status of physical education and APE for disabled children in New England by: (1) identifying school stakeholders’ perceptions of the importance of physical education and APE, and (2) identifying school stakeholders’ awareness of APE and physical education.
Method: We conducted a qualitative inquiry grounded in a critical-ableism perspective and interpretivist lens to explore various special education stakeholders’ experiences and perspectives about physical education and APE for disabled children. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 10 physical educators (adapted and general), nine parents of disabled children in public schools, and two school administrators within the New England region.
Analysis/Results: Using a reflexive thematic analysis we developed open and axial codes while analyzing the interview transcripts across stakeholders in the aggregate. To enhance the analysis rigor, we maintained a thorough audit trail, took and used reflexive notes during the data collection and analysis process, and conferred with a critical friend to aid with the interpretation process.
Results: Four interrelated themes were constructed from our analysis pointing to common attitudinal and structural barriers towards physical education and APE among the special education stakeholders. These themes were: (1) Disability is something to ignore, as we don’t want them [disabled children] to feel bad, (2) Who cares about APE, it’s just for disabled kiddos, (3) “Participation”-the act of simply being present is considered inclusion and good teaching”, and (4) Physical education for my child was a nightmare.
Conclusions: These findings illustrate the complexities around the provision (or lack thereof) of physical education and APE to disabled children. Our findings continue to highlight numerous attitudinal and societal barriers that prevent disabled children from accessing meaningful physical education and APE experiences, as required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Implications for ways in which physical education and APE professionals can support and enhance physical activity opportunities for disabled children in public schools are discussed.
Web-based Physical Activity Programs for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Caregivers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Jun Liu1, Central China Normal University
Background/Purpose: Web-based physical activity (WBPA) program is an economical and promising nonpharmacological therapy for individuals with autism spectrum disorder(ASD), but it has been few studies to address its effects.The purpose of this literature review was to examine the effectiveness of WBPA program on ASD individuals’ physical activity enhancement and their caregivers’ mental health and to analyze the caregivers’ satisfaction of WBPA program interventions.
Method: We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, The Cochrane Library, SPORTDiscus, and PsycInfo from inception to 31 January 2023 and included randomized controlled trials, quasi-experimental studies, one-group pretest-posttest design studies, and semi-structured interviews that examined the effectiveness of WBPA program in individuals with ASD and their caregivers. Two reviewers independently assessed methodological quality and extracted information from included studies. Comprehensive Meta-analysis v.3 software was applied to process and analyze data.
Analysis/Results: A total of 10 articles with 358 participants (158=ASD individuals, 200=the caregivers) were selected. In these studies, 3 studies including ASD individuals only, 3 studies including the caregivers only, and 4 studies including both ASD individuals and their caregivers. A total of 7 studies reported the effects of WBPA program interventions on physical activity levels in ASD individuals. Five studies showed positive intervention effect on PA enhancement for ASD individuals whereas one study found the changes were not significant and one study reported negative effects. Large intervention effects (Hedges’ g=1.064, 95% CI [0.749,1.379], p = 0.000) of WBPA program on ASD individuals’ PA enhancement were found in this meta-analysis. Two studies reported the effects of WBPA intervention on caregivers’ mental health, both studies reported a significantly greater improvement on anxiety level (Hedges’g = 0.491, 95%CI [0.209, 0.772],p = 0.001), depression level (Hedges’ g = 0.534, 95%CI [0.251, 0.816],p = 0.000) and stress level (Hedges’ g = 0.68, 95%CI [0.212, 1.148],p = 0.004) in the WBPA program groups than the control groups. Six studies assessed how caregivers of ASD individuals perceived the WBPA program intervention, overall, most caregivers of ASD individuals were satisfied with this type of intervention.
Conclusions: The findings provided preliminary evidence for WBPA to enhance ASD individuals’ physical activity levels and improve their caregivers’ mental health with satisfaction.
Exercise Sciences
Association Between Obesity Indices, Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness in Adolescents
Lingsong Kong1, University of Massachusetts Amherst; Caifang Wu, University of Texas at Arlington; Yaohui He, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: Adolescent obesity is associated with reduced physical fitness. The array of available obesity indices for assessment complicates selection for researchers and physical educators. This study aims to determine the obesity indices with the strongest associations with cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and muscular fitness (MF) in Chinese adolescents.
Method: Multiple obesity indices, including body mass index (BMI) percentile, waist circumference (WC), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), and body fat percentage (BF%), were obtained from 59 boys and 47 girls aged 13 to 15 years. The Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER), curl-ups, and push-ups were also assessed following Fitnessgram®. Multiple linear regression models, adjusting for gender and age, were employed to examine the associations between the various obesity indices and CRF and MF. The standardized regression coefficients of the multiple obesity indices were used to compare the strength of these associations.
Analysis/Results: The results revealed that BMI percentile, WC, WHtR, and BF% were inversely associated with both CRF and MF, before and after adjusting for gender and age. WHtR (β = –0.29, p < 0.01) and BF% (β = –0.28, p < 0.01) demonstrated the strongest associations with PACER. WHtR (β = –0.40, p < 0.01) showed the strongest association with curl-ups; and both WHtR (β = –0.35, p < 0.01) and BF% (β = –0.36, p < 0.01) exhibited the strongest associations with push-ups.
Conclusions: WHtR and BF% were suggested as better obesity indices correlating with CRF and MF among Chinese adolescents. Future studies should consider a larger sample size to further confirm our findings.
Bench Press: Maximal Strength- vs. Velocity-Based Training with High Resistance
Mitchell McCleary1, Istvan Kovacs, Stacey Herzog, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Traditional maximal strength training is essential both in competitive powerlifting and fitness training. In recent years, velocity-based training (VBT) with 75-85% of 1RM resistance has been popularized in powerlifting preparations. The relationship between the resistance and the movement velocity in maximal-effort propulsive exercises (i.e., F-v curve) has been long established. Loturco (2020) also revealed that 80% of 1RM should be considered the highest meaningful resistance for VBT in bench press (BP). No study, however, investigated the effect of VBT with this relatively high resistance on the actual 1RM BP performance.
Method: A six-week, three workouts per week program was administered to 52 young, physically active adults (age: 22.4 ± 5.1; 12 female). Most of the participants (84.6%) had prior experience in bench pressing. They were randomized into two groups of similar male-female ratios with different training concentrations: muscular strength (MS) or muscular power (MP). Workouts began with bench press, followed by seated dumbbell vertical press, and completed with six upper-body assistance exercises. MS performed four-six sets with 90-95% 1RM for BP and used 2x20% 1RM when completing seated dumbbell presses. MP used 75-85% 1RM focusing on maximal movement velocity in BP and used 15-20% of 1RM for the seated dumbbell presses. Pre- and post-tests were conducted on one-repetition maximum BP (1RM) and four-repetition maximal effort dynamic BP for peak concentric velocity with 80% 1RM resistance (4RV). The 4RV post-test protocols included both the “original” pre-test 80% 1RM resistance (4RVO) and the “new” 80% of the post-test 1RM (4RVN). Pre- and post-test results were compared within and between groups.
Analysis/Results: Paired-samples t-tests indicated significant within-group improvements in 1RM and 4RVO in both groups (p < 0.05). The MS group improved in 1RM from 191.9 ± 84.1 to 206.1 ±82.4 lbs. and in 4RVO from 0.560 ±0.100 to 0.651 ±0.135 m/sec. The MP group improved in 1RM from 198.2 ±66.8 to 214.4 ± 66.1 lbs., and in 4RVO from 0.571 ± 0.120 m/sec to 0.652 ± 0.157 m/sec. There was no significant difference between pre-test 4RVO and post-test 4RVN in either group. The differences in rate of improvements between the two groups could not be determined because the normality test for the variables was not met. MANCOVA was not administered.
Conclusions: While the two bench press training programs each had a different focus (MS or MP), they had comparable results in developing both 1RM and 4RV. This may be related to the transfer principle that seems to be strong between maximal strength and muscular power in the high resistance range used in the present study. In addition, the improved muscular power manifested in similar barbell velocities produced with the new 80% 1RM during the post-test to that of the velocities produced with the original 80% of 1RM during pre-testing. While elite powerlifters might have experienced more specific adaptations to the different training programs, young healthy adults with general fitness goals could benefit from either MS or MP program designs in developing 1RM and 80% 1RM velocities concurrently.
Hot and Humid Half-marathon Effect on Post-exercise Hypotension
Jefferson F. C. Rodrigues Jr., Victor G. S. Souza, Mario N. O. Jr. Sevilio, Universidade Federal do Maranhão; Nilo C. Ramos1, Coastal Carolina University
Background/Purpose: Post-exercise hypotension (PEH) is the reduction of resting blood pressure after physical exercise compared to pre-exercise, fundamentally decreasing cardiovascular risk (Figueiredo et al., 2015). Physical exercise is recommended for the treatment and prevention of hypertension (Pescatello et al., 2004), as PEH is observed regardless of physical condition, gender and age (Stone et al., 2020).
While studies demonstrate PEH in short to long duration activities, these studies are conducted in indoor environments (laboratories) with thermoneutral conditions (Kriel et al., 2019), a context far from the reality of runners who participate in races in a hot and humid environment under sun exposure (Alderman et al., 2007). The effects of long runs (> 80 minutes) under solar radiation (outdoor), as it occurs in street running, on hemodynamic variables are not well known. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe cardiovascular changes after a 21km run (half-marathon) performed in a hot and humid environment with trained individuals.
Method: Ten healthy male runners with half-marathon times between 80 and 115 minutes (33.4 ± 10.0 years, 66.4 ± 9.15 kg, 1.71 ± 0.06 m, 22.58 ± 2.05 Kg.m-2, 10.81 ± 5.89% of fat) participated in the study. Participants assessed their VO2 peak and later ran one half-marathon as fast as possible and had their pre- and post- systolic (SBP), diastolic (DBP), and mean arterial (MAP) blood pressure, and heart rate (HR) measured at 10, 30 and 60 minutes of recovery. The environmental variables ambient (AT) and globe temperature (GT), relative humidity (RH) and WetBulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) were recorded.
Analysis/Results: An analysis of variance with repeated measures (RM ANOVA) with Tukey’s post hoc was performed to determine the effect of the half-marathon performed in a hot environment on the hemodynamic variables during recovery at 10, 30 and 60 minutes.
Participants completed, on average, the run in 101:00 ± 9:52 minutes, at an intensity of 91.81 ±5.80% of the maximum HR (167.07 ±12.80 bpm), and VO2 of 40.93 ±5.09mlO2/kg/min, (70.25 ±11.06% of the VO2peak). AT was 27,96 ± 1,70°C, GT was 28,52 ± 2,51°C, RH was 76,88 ± 7,49% and WBGT was 25.80 ± 1.18°C.
After 10 minutes of recovery, SBP decreased 13.3 ± 11.9 mmHg (12%), DBP 6.9 ± 8.0 mmHg (8.9%) and MAP 10.0 ± 7.9 mmHg (9.6%), while HR remained 20.7 ± 8.4 bpm (12.8%) above baseline. After 60 minutes of recovery, SBP decreased 22.0 ± 3.7 mmHg (17%), DBP 8.7 ± 11.1 mmHg (11%) and MAP 13.1 ± 7.4 mmHg (13.9%), while HR was 6.9 ± 13.6 bpm (10.9%) above baseline.
Conclusions: A single half-marathon reduced all hemodynamic variables (SBP, DBP, and MAP) in the 60 minutes of recovery, confirming findings already reported in previous studies on the hypotensive effect of exercise. Despite the stress exacerbated by exposure to the hot and humid environment, we observed a significant reduction in blood pressure levels, a fact that reinforces its clinical relevance. As post-exercise recovery time increased, greater decrease in blood pressure was observed, becoming more evident after 30 minutes and reaching the greatest reduction after 60 minutes, corroborating with other studies.
Table Tennis Drills for Cardiorespiratory Benefits of Senior Recreational Players
Istvan Kovacs1, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Participating in recreational table tennis provides effective neuromotor exercise training, but does not necessarily deliver adequate cardiorespiratory training load to amateur participants (Kondrič 2013, Sperlich 2011). Intense footwork/ball striking drills are the best choices to target cardiorespiratory training in table tennis (Zhang 2010). While VO2max and Lactate-minimum test results have been published for elite table tennis players’ footwork drills (Barbieri 2013, Katsikadelis 2017, Shieh 2010, Suchomel 2010, Zagatto 2014) no studies addressed cardiorespiratory benefits of these drills or playing the actual table tennis game in the general senior population. This study aimed to investigate the intensities of the competitive games and two commonly used footwork drills for cardiorespiratory benefits in senior (50+) players.
Method: Sixteen healthy recreational table tennis players (Age: 62.1 ± 5.3, 11 males) completed the study on three, non-consecutive days. First, individual target heart rate zones were determined based on ACSM’s guidelines using age-predicted maximal heart rates and heart rate reserves. During all three days of testing, Sigma PC26.14 heart rate monitors recorded heart rates and times spent in different target heart rate zones. On day 1, participants played five table tennis matches (best 3 out of 5 sets) against different opponents. Percentage distributions among times spent in light-, moderate-, vigorous- and maximal-intensity training zones were calculated. On day 2, participants preformed the “two-position forehand” footwork drill, where they had to hit forehand shots on balls coming alternately left and right. A Butterfly Amicus table tennis robot fed the balls with a moderate 12-18 rotation/s topspin and a manageable 5.5-6.0 m/s speed, so participants could focus on proper left-right footwork as the main aim of the exercise. The intensity of the exercise increased step-wise on three-minute intervals by gradually increased ball feeding rates. The exercise was terminated when participants reached their vigorous-intensity target heart rates. On day 3, participants performed the Falkenberg (three-position) footwork drill at increasing intensities similar to day 2. For the two footwork drills, individual ball feeding rates were identified for achieving cardiorespiratory training at moderate- and vigorous-intensities.
Analysis/Results: During the table tennis games, participants completed their matches in 12:42 ±1:46 min with an average heart rate of 116.4 ±18.0. They spent 25.3% of the duration of the match in light-, 39.9% in moderate-, 31.4% in vigorous-, and 3.4% in maximum intensity zones. During the two-position forehand drill, on average, 33.8 ±7.2 ball/min feeding rate provided the participants with moderate intensity exercising, while 46.3 ±4.7 balls/min rate was needed for vigorous exercising. During the Falkenberg drill, higher feeding rates were necessary for corresponding intensities: 39.6 ±10.5 balls/min for moderate-, and 49.6 ±7.7 balls/min for vigorous-intensity exercising.
Conclusions: Senior recreational table tennis players spend significant amount of time in moderate to vigorous cardiorespiratory intensity zones while playing games. In addition, the two footwork drills investigated in the current study provide cardiorespiratory training benefits, even at a significantly lower ball feeding rate than that of used by younger table tennis players.
Using Overall Body Composition Index to Predict PACER Performance
Istvan Kovacs1, Wenhao LiuF, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Although body mass index (BMI), body fat percent (%BF), and waist circumference (WC) each can be used separately as a body composition index (BCI) to establish associations with cardiorespiratory fitness, it may be more appropriate to use an overall BCI to establish the association. This study was intended to create an overall BCI including the three BCIs mentioned above and see how the overall BCI could predict the performance of Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) among university students.
Method: Three different BCIs (BMI, %BF, and WC) and the PACER were measured for 102 university students (mean age: 20.94 ±1.28; 61 males and 41 females), and an overall BCI was created by converting each of the three individual BCIs into z scores and then adding them together. The overall BCI was used to predict participants’ PACER performance with bivariate linear regression. The bivariate linear regression was run separately for males and females.
Analysis/Results: For both males and females, the scatterplots showed that the two variables (the overall BCI and the PACER performance) were linearly related. That is, when the overall BCI decreased, the PACER performance would improve. The regression equation for predicting the PACER performance from the overall BCI for males was: the predicted PACER performance (in laps) = –3.72 overall BCI + 55.64. The 95% confidence interval for the slope ranged from –5.24 to –2.20 and did not contain the value of zero, which was an indicator of significant linear relationship between the two variables. In addition, the significance test result was significant (p < .001) as F(1, 59) = 24.0. Further, prediction strength was strong with r = –.54 (p < .001) and r2 = .29. With respect to females, the predicted PACER performance (in laps) = –4.53 overall BCI + 43.54, and the 95% confidence interval for the slope, – 6.88 to –2.18, did not contain the value of zero. The significance test result was also significant (p < .001) as F(1, 39) = 15.21, and the prediction strength was strong with r = –.53 (p < .001) and r2 = .28.
Conclusions: The overall BCI can predict university students’ PACER performance to a considerable degree, accounting for 29% (r2 = .29) of the variance of the PACER performance for males and 28% (r2 = .28) of the variance for females. In addition, based on the regression equations, one unit increase in the overall BCI will result in 3.72 laps decrease for males or 4.53 laps decrease for females, on average, in the PACER performance for university students.
Measurement & Evaluation
Concurrent Validity of the SwingVision Tennis Match Analysis Mobile Application
Jupil Choe1, University of Mississippi; Inwhi Hwang, Sooji Hwang, Jun‐Hao Shen, KyungHee University; Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi; Jungmin Lee, KyungHee University
Background/Purpose: The increasing popularity of tennis has resulted in a diverse range of individual engagements in the sport. Particularly, technology-driven approaches, including recording, visualization, and evaluation, have played an important role in enhancing interest and participation in tennis. SwingVision is a popular tennis-related application used to analyze and track tennis strokes. It is widely used due to its competitive pricing and user-friendly interface. However, there is no study that examines the accuracy of SwingVision. Therefore, the present study aims (1) to establish the validity of SwingVision data compared to the criterion data and (2) to examine the potential differences between the recording positions (i.e., optimal and suboptimal angles).
Method: Four matches (2 singles and 2 doubles) were played by six college students, and every match was recorded in two angles (optimal and suboptimal). After the data collection, recorded videos were analyzed by SwingVision and certified tennis umpires (criterion). The umpires were one international umpire (white badge) and one national umpire. Among the variables provided by SwingVision, the present study selected 8 variables, which are stroke (serve, forehand groundstroke, backhand groundstroke, forehand volley, backhand volley, and overhead), hit depth (service box, between service box and baseline, and out), hit zone (deuce and advantage), bounce depth (service box, between service box and baseline, and out), bounce zone (deuce and advantage), spin (topspin and slice), result (in, out, and net), and speed. A total of 1,065 strokes were in agreement with SwingVision’s data (optimal and suboptimal angles) and were analyzed by certified tennis umpires. For the speed variable, the criterion data were measured using a speed radar. The chi-square test, the proportion of agreement, and Kappa statistics were utilized to demonstrate the association of categorical variables between the SwingVision (optimal and suboptimal angles) and criterion. Paired t-test and Pearson correlation were used to compare speed data.
Analysis/Results: SwingVision’s stroke data exhibited high levels of agreement with the criterion for various parameters, with optimal angle reaching 98.87% (kappa: 0.965) and suboptimal angle reaching 97.09% (kappa: 0.959). Additionally, hit depth achieved 76.15% (0.575) and 74.83% (0.549), hit zone scored 98.59% (0.959) and 97.84% (0.957), bounce depth obtained 90.89% (0.822) and 90.52% (0.815), bounce zone recorded 95.96% (0.932) and 95.02% (0.899), spin achieved 84.41% (0.330) and 81.97% (0.260), and result showed 92.68% (0.806) and 93.43% (0.830) agreement, respectively. Chi-square test between SwingVision and criterion data in every categorical variable presented p < 0.001. Speed data showed significant mean difference between the optimal angle and criterion (t = 6.248, p < 0.001) and the suboptimal and criterion (t = 6.743, p < 0.001) and moderate correlation between three data (optimal and criterion: 0.506, optimal and suboptimal: 0.495, and criterion and suboptimal: 0.531).
Conclusions: In summary, the data for the optimal angle demonstrated significantly closer agreement with the criterion data compared to the suboptimal angle data, with the exception of the result variable. Consequently, the present study establishes the concurrent validity evidence of SwingVision, although users should remain cognizant of potential errors stemming from angle discrepancies.
Development and Validation of the Emotional Problem Measurement Scale (EPMS) Through the Difference Between Exercise Groups for High School Students
Sae-Hyung Kim1, Chungbuk National University; Dongwook Cho, Keimyung University
Background/Purpose: Previous studies indicated adolescents who participate in any types of exercises had less physical anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal than those who didn’t. One of the widely utilized scales to measure individual’s emotional condition is the Emotional Problem Measurement Scale (EPMS). However, there have been limited studies on whether the EPMS is appropriate to utilize for different target populations. Therefore, the purpose of this study aims to develop and calibrate the EPMS by utilizing the Rasch rating scale model for high school students and to validate the scale through known group difference approach between the group that exercised regularly for week and the group that does not.
Method: Based on the literature review and consultation of content and measurement experts, 23 items with 4-point rating scale of the EPMS was generated. The EPMS was administered to 2265 (boy = 1217; girl=1048) high school students in South Korea. The Rasch measurement computer program, Winsteps 5.6.0 and SPSS 27 were used to analyze the data. The development step is following; (1) The rating scale fit was determined by the observed average index (logits) that increased step by step. (2) Item fit was determined by Infit and Outfit index fit statistics (≥0.60 and ≤1.40). (3) The DIF was applied to examine the variation between gender by using DIF size index fit statistics (≥0.43). (4) One-way ANOVA was used to establish the known group difference validity evidence of the EPMS. Alpha level was set at 0.05.
Analysis/Results: The results indicated that the 4-point rating scale was appropriated to utilize for the EPMS by verifying that observed average index was increased step by step (–2.74 < –1.19 < –0.29 < 0.36). One items (item6) had over standard item fit. Also, the finding from this study examined two items (item13, item18) were selected as the DIF. Therefore, 20 items were finally developed as the EPMS for high school students. Finally, there was a statistically significant mean difference the total score between categorized two exercise groups of high school students [(< 2 hours, ≥ 2 hours), F (1, 2263) = 27.534, p < 0.001]. In other words, the discriminant validity was confirmed because the EPMS mean scores of the group that exercised more than two hours a week had significantly lower than the group who didn’t. Thus, this current finding supports the known group difference validity evidence of the EPMS.
Conclusions: This study developed a 20-item with 4-point rating scale of the EPMS for high school students based on the results of Rasch rating scale model calibration. Also, the newly reconstructed EPMS was verified the evidence of known group difference validity through difference between exercise groups. In addition, he EPMS can be used to assess the risk of emotional problems and to provide health information among adolescents.
Development of a Scale to Measure Quality of Physical Education
Xiaoxia Zhang1, Centenary College of Louisiana; Joonkoo YunF, East Carolina University
Background/Purpose: Providing high-quality physical education (PE) experience is important for students in high school and beyond. SHAPE America (2015) recommended four essential components for high-quality PE in school: policy and environment, curriculum, instructions, and assessment. This study aimed to develop the Quality of Physical Education Scale (QPES) using those four key factors to measure the quality of PE services in high school.
Method: The QPES was developed to assess individuals’ perceptions of their high school PE quality. The first version of the scale was created based on the checklist of the four components of quality PE from SHAPE America guidelines. Six experts reviewed the first version of the scale to assess its representativeness, importance, and clarity. The second version of the scale, which included 39 items, was reviewed by nine undergraduates and graduates for clarity. The third version of the scale, which included 33 items, was reviewed by two experts for representativeness, importance, and clarity. The fourth version of the scale, which included 31 items, was administered to 280 college students (62.1% females; mean age = 20.09, SD = 2.04) from 11 universities across the United States. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the four-factor structure of the scale.
Analysis/Results: The initial QPES comprised 34 items and was divided into four categories, including environment/policy (8 items), curriculum (15 items), instruction (8 items), and assessment (3 items). After feedback from expert panels, items were edited and redrafted three times, and experts agreed on content representativeness. The 4th version of the QPES had 31 items, with 7 items on the environment/policy, 13 items on curriculum, 8 items on instruction, and 3 items on assessment. However, the CFA for the 4th QPES was not fit to support the internal structure of the scale. Based on further post-doc analyses and examination of the items’ content, a total of 26 items were identified, including environment/policy (5 items), curriculum (10 items), instruction (8 items), and assessment (3 items). The results from a CFA revealed an appropriate model fit (χ2/df = 2.77; IFI = .91; CFI = .91; RMSEA = .08, 90%CI [.07, .09]). The factor loading of all retained items ranged from .60 to .84. The results provided evidence for the construct validity of this scale by demonstrating an appropriate internal test structure.
Conclusions: The initial instability of the measurement model of the 4th QPES may be related to SHAPE American’s proposed conceptual model. The key factors of quality PE may need more than four subconstructs. For example, seven environment/policy items may be divided into physical environment (e.g., space, equipment, etc.) and environment related to opportunities (policy). Once items related to opportunities are removed from the scale, the results of goodness-of-fit tests are substantially improved. Despite 26 items of the QPES showing the appropriate internal structure, further independent studies are needed for cross-validation and reevaluation of the proposed factors regarding quality PE services.
Development of a Social-Emotional Learning Survey Instrument for Afterschool Settings
Allison Poulos1, Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Arizona State University; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Mengyi Wei, Marissa Schulke, Kahyun Nam, Hyungsik Min, Arizona State University; Omar Albaloul, Arizona State University-Kuwait University; Kylie Wilson, Dong Liu, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Afterschool programs that target social-emotional learning (SEL) combined with physical activity can support holistic health. While several programs have adopted sport-based and/or fitness-based programming, (typically targeting middle and high school students), less work has been done with elementary. Further, there is a dearth of survey-based instruments used to measure SEL in play-based afterschool programs that are appropriate for both younger and older children. The purpose of this study was to develop and present the reliability and preliminary efficacy of an age-appropriate questionnaire for both younger (grades K-2; ages 5-8) and older (grades 3-6; ages 8-12) children to measure perceived SEL while participating in a play-based afterschool program using the CASEL conceptual framework aligned with the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model.
Method: An initial multi-stage development strategy included review, adoption, and modification of previously validated SEL questionnaires followed by expert content validation (n=18). Next, paper versions of both versions of the questionnaires were administered in person to children in grades K-6 attending 14 afterschool programs (N= 333) at two time points, approximately nine weeks apart. Reliability was measured by internal consistency. Descriptive statistics were calculated to describe preliminary efficacy of SEL constructs.
Analysis/Results: Following two rounds of review, the group of content experts determined that the identified SEL subcomponents in the initial questionnaire were modified appropriately for older (3-6) students, but developmentally inappropriate for younger (K-2) students. As a result, two additional rounds of expert review, discussion, and modification based on theoretical and statistical rationale were conducted to create a comparable measure targeting the same SEL subcomponents appropriate for younger children. The final questionnaires contained items measuring five constructs: personal responsibility, social responsibility, self-management, peer relationships, and disruptive behavior (antithetical to responsible decision making). The total number of items adopted for the instrument for older children totaled 40, and younger children totaled 24. Reliability scores for all five constructs in the older-child version met acceptable levels (Cronbach’s Alpha>.70) at both time points. Participants reported the highest mean scores for social responsibility (MT1=5.17, SD=.77; MT2=5.10, SD=.76) and self-management (MT1=8.43, SD=1.38; MT1=8.23, SD=1.33). Reliability for the primary instrument were lower and varied (Cronbach’s Alpha=.527-.828) and mean scores varied for all constructs.
Conclusions: Although several TPSR/SEL survey tools exist, none currently target all five SEL competencies and are appropriate for both younger and older elementary school children during afterschool programs. Our SEL questionnaire showed good reliability for older children, although the instrument for younger children needs further refinement. Evaluating critical SEL competencies across a range of age groups is essential for evaluating physical activity settings including after school programs.
Latino Parents’ Self-Reported Beliefs About Physical Activity Survey – Psychometric Analysis
Omar Sanchez1, The Ohio State University
Background/Purpose: Family is key to physical activity promotion. In recent years, researchers have examined through the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the parent’s role determining their children’s behaviors. More specifically, researchers have examined the parental support for children’s physical activity. The primary purpose for this study was to assess through a psychometric analysis the validity and reliability of the Latina-Latino Parents’ Self-Reported Beliefs about Physical Activity survey analyzing the four constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior. The secondary purpose was to analyze the Latina-Latino Parents’ Self-Reported Beliefs about Physical Activity through a 19-item survey.
Method: For this study, there was a three-phase approach: a) Item Generation, b) Content Validity, and c) Psychometric Evaluation. Potential participants were invited to complete the Latina-Latino Parents’ Self-Reported Beliefs about Physical Activity Survey as well as a demographic questionnaire. The survey was generated using Qualtrics. The instrument consisted of the original 19 questions. Each of the 19 statements asked for a 7-point Likert-scale response, where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. Demographics questions were also included, such as gender, age, ethnicity, income, disability, and where do they reside.There were 271 Latino parents (female n = 208 [76.8%]; male n = 63 [23.2%) from South, Texas who participated in the study. Data were collected using a convenience sample method as well as a snowball sampling technique.
Analysis/Results: The psychometric properties were assessed using a maximum-likelihood extraction method. After running the initial analysis, the KMO test reported a result of .917 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity returned a significant result (χ2 = 2973, p= .000). All communalities except two were above 0.4. Communalities ranged from .273 to .862. The table of eigenvalues reported four eigenvalues greater than one. All four accounted for 67.043 % of the variation in responses. With four factors suggested, a Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) analysis was conducted in SPSS Version 28 with an oblique rotation and four extracted factors. Reliability analyses were conducted on all four subscales. Cronbach’s alpha for the “Attitude” subscale was .849 with a 95% confidence interval of .819 to .875. Cronbach’s alpha for the “Subjective Norms” subscale was .835 with a 95% confidence interval of .799 to .864. Cronbach’s alpha for the “Perceived Behavior Control” subscale was .713 with a 95% confidence interval of .652 to .766. Cronbach’s alpha for the “Intention” subscale was .905 with a 95% confidence interval of .884 to .922.
Conclusions: Validity evidence is presented in the Latina-Latino Parents’ Self-Reported Beliefs about Physical Activity survey by confirming a three-component (attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control) model based on the responses of the Latino parents. There is empirical evidence that the Theory of Planned Behavior supports the influence of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control towards the intention of taking part in physical activity. It is important to explore the determinants of physical activity in this population as they have the highest prevalence percentage (32.1%) of inactivity.
Modeling Group Exercise Customer Retention
Shahaf Y Bareni1, Joseph Walker, University of North Texas; Laura Walker, Troy university
Background/Purpose: Health and fitness clubs are important venues for group exercise classes, which are popular leisure-time activities among adults that help people maintain their health and promote personal connections with group members (Evans et al., 2019). Although more than 43% of adult gym members in the USA participate in group exercise (Gilbert et al., 2017), research shows that 50% of participants in exercise programs drop out within the first six months (MacIntosh & Law,2015), significantly impacting the longevity and profitability of the fitness business (León-Quismondo et al., 2020). Furthermore, acquiring new customers is five times more costly than retaining existing members (Richland, 1994; Zeithaml et al., 1996), thus understanding what influences group exercise participants to adhere to a fitness program is crucial for operators to improve financial success (Ntoumanis et al., 2017). Studies have explored various factors that play a role in the intention to repurchase. One of the primary outcomes of any exercise regimen is the satisfaction experienced by the participants (Yardley, 1987). Exercise satisfaction can be described as a positive emotional state resulting from a multifaceted evaluation of the exercise experience, encompassing the structures, processes, and outcomes involved (Chelladurai & Riemer, 1997). When individuals find contentment with an exercise program, they are more likely to continue with it or consider re-enrolling in the future (Chang, 1998). Service quality evaluations are closely related to positive behavioral intentions such as the intention to repurchase (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Kouthouris & Alexandris, 2005). Price serves as an indicator of product quality and has a direct effect on customer satisfaction (Zeithaml, et al., 1996). Estabrooks and Carron (2000) developed the Physical Activity Group Environment Questionnaire (PAGEQ) and found that overall group cohesion has a relationship with overall class satisfaction and adherence.
This research intends to propose a conceptual model that investigates group exercise program continuation, influenced by membership price, service quality, and group cohesion.
Method: A random sample of members from North Texas recreation fitness centers were asked to complete a group exercise operation assessment. Data was collected from 200 group exercise participants. The survey included a 5-point Likert-scale where 1=low and 5=high of the following: five PAGEQ items Group Integration- Task (GI-T) and Group Integration- Social (GI-S), four general service quality items measuring equipment, room area, and staff, a single item for price satisfaction, and an item measuring intention to repurchase.
Analysis/Results: Price and Service Quality (GXSQ) have a direct significant relationship with intent to repurchase (p < 0.01). The relationship between GI-T and intent to repurchase was found to be positive and significant at the p-level of 0.05. GXSQ and Price mediating the relationship of GI-T and intentions to repurchase. And price mediating the relationship of GXSQ and intent to repurchase. GI-S does not contribute to our model.
Conclusions: The results emphasize the importance of the quality of the program (instructor and operations) and the price point when deciding to repurchase classes. The collective task and how participants perceived satisfaction are influenced by these factors, and a positive experience leads to program re-enrollment.
The Effects of Detailed Process-Oriented Directions on Young Adults’ TGMD-3 Ball Skill Performance
Yung-Ju Chen1, Minot State University; Chih-Chia Chen, Mississippi State University
Background/Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effects of the detailed process-oriented directions on young adults’ TGMD-3 ball skill performance and the sex differences of the intervention effects.
Method: Fifty-four young adults (11 males, 43 females; Mage = 20.84, SD = 1.77) were recruited. A randomized control trial with pre- and post-tests was adopted. TGMD-3 ball skill subtest was administered. The standardized test protocol was used for all pre-tests and post-test for the control group. A modified protocol with detailed process-oriented directions was administered for the experimental group’s post-test. ANOVAs were conducted to analyze the group differences. Sex differences were also analyzed.
Analysis/Results: The experimental group demonstrated a significant improvement in their ball skill performance at post-test, with no group differences at pre-test (p < .001). However, when analyzing the data by sex, only females in the experimental group showed a significant improvement (p < .001) but males (p = .12).
Conclusions: This study suggested that the information provided in the test direction matters, especially for females, when measuring young adults’ motor skill competence. Further research is needed to understand how the quality and amount of verbal information given influences children’s TGMD-3 performance.
Trend of Physical Activity Patterns: Exploring Transportation, Work, and Recreational Activities in NHANES from 2009 to 2018
SeungBak Lee1, Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi; Jae-Hyeon Park, Sang-eun Oh, Korea National Sport University
Background/Purpose: Understanding the trends in physical activity patterns is important for developing effective public health interventions and policies promoting active lifestyles. Physical activity includes a wide range of behaviors distributed across three domains: transportation, work, and recreation. These domains are interconnected, with specific activities influencing one another. Previous studies have explored relationships between transportation and recreational activities and work and recreational activities. Despite these efforts, a comprehensive assessment of secular trends in each physical activity is somewhat limited. This study aimed to bridge this gap by examining the secular trends in physical activity patterns from 2009 to 2018, utilizing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). A particular emphasis was placed on examining variations in transportation, work, and recreational activities over the timeframe.
Method: The study collected 28,835 data from NHANES from 2009 to 2018 to investigate the secular trends in physical activity patterns. Five sociodemographic variables, 15 physical activity variables, and one physical measurement variable were collected. Hours of activity for each physical activity behavior were multiplied by frequency (days) to create a continuous variable of each activity per week (hours per week). The study tested linear and quadratic trends based on weighted mean using orthogonal polynomial coefficients. Furthermore, we evaluated potential secular physical activity behavior trends among various subpopulations, including age groups, gender, race-ethnicity, education level, and BMI groups. All analyses were conducted by Rstudio (version 3.7).
Analysis/Results: The study identified a quadratic trend (Ptrend < .01) in the only work activity behavior for the overall sample. Work activity hours (per week) peaked in 2017-2018 at 21.4, then showed the lowest at 16.7 during 2009-2010. In the subpopulation analyses, significant quadratic trends were investigated among the group with the pre-obesity BMI category (Ptrend < .01), the age group 40-59 years (Ptrend = .04), and the male group (Ptrend = .03). Regarding recreational activity, the overall trend and most subpopulation analyses did not show a significant tendency. However, there was a statistically significant positive linear trend in the group with a BMI less than 18.5 during the circles from 2009 to 2014 (Ptrend = .04, M09-10 = 2.97, M11-12 = 4.02, M13-14 = 7.82). Next, this study did not identify a significant trend in transportation activity in the overall and most subgroup analyses. Nevertheless, a significant quadratic trend was observed within the male group (Ptrend = .03).
Conclusions: This study used secular trend analysis to examine potential trends in diverse physical activity behaviors among American adults over time. The result revealed a noteworthy long-term shift in work-related physical activity compared to other types of physical activity. Notably, there were distinct quadratic patterns in subgroups such as pre-obesity BMI, individuals aged 40-59, and males. The study confirmed the probability of creating and assessing early preventive measures for lifestyle-related health problems. Also, identifying unique activity patterns in different subpopulations may help more precise health promotion and issue prevention strategies.
Motivation & Psychology
Comparing Students’ Motivational, Emotional, and Activity Experiences in Sport Education and the Skill Theme Approach
Kelly L. Simonton1, Tristan L. WallheadF, University of Wyoming; Zach Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: Recent propositions have situated instructional models in physical education (PE) as current best practices for achieving a broad range of student learning outcomes in Elementary PE contexts. Despite this emphasis, there has been less attention on how students experience specific Models Based Practices (MBPs) and how these experiences shape their emotional, motivational and social outcomes; as emotions are linked to action and behavior. The purpose of this study was to explore Elementary students’ experiences of two commonly used MBPs (Sport Education (SE) and the Skill Theme (ST) Approach) to examine potential differences in motivational beliefs, emotions, peer relationships, intentions, and activity time.
Method: Students (N= 271; Mage= 9.36, SD=.924) in 3rd-5th grade from two Elementary schools participated in the study. Classes at both school sites were split with 3rd-4th co-educational classes experiencing a ST unit on throwing and catching (n= 129) and 4th-5th co-educational classes experiencing a SE unit on modified handball (n= 142). All students completed a survey at the end of the first and last lesson (18 lessons total) using previously validated measures. The survey included control and value beliefs about the unit, emotions (enjoyment, boredom, pride, anger, shame), peer relationship beliefs, and intentions regarding participation in the content. PA was measured with pedometers every third lesson to calculate average activity across the unit for each student.
Analysis/Results: All multi-item variables met acceptable reliability scores (α >.70) and compositive mean scores were created. A series of Repeated Measures MANCOVAs (time x model x gender) revealed significant differences across models. Participants reported significant changes in control, intrinsic, and extrinsic value beliefs over time in both models with value beliefs reducing in the ST group and significantly increasing in SE group. An interaction by gender showed both male and female increases in all three beliefs in SE compared to ST counterparts. For emotions, enjoyment and pride significantly improved for SE compared to ST while shame significantly decreased in each group. Boredom and anger decreased in both models but was more pronounced in SE compared to ST. Lastly, significant increases in peer relations for SE students and decreases for ST students were found. Intention for participation in the content was significantly increased in the SE groups. Lastly, the average step activity across the units was statistically higher for the SE as compared to ST.
Conclusions: The SE student experiences not only enhanced their learning and value in PE, but it involved more positive experiences, decreased negatived experiences and had significant impact on peer relationships. The ST approach elicited reductions in student value, enjoyment, and peer relationships suggesting students likely did not feel as engaged or social within the learning experiences. For upper elementary-aged students the student-centered features of SE clearly engage learners, motivate them, and connect them to the activity. While ST may be developmentally appropriate for lower Elementary age groups, it appears that as students’ progress through the latter grades of elementary school SE has greater potential to establish stronger emotional connections and subsequent behavioral outcomes.
Comparing the Perceived Workplace Experiences of Physical Educators and PETE Faculty Members
Youngjoon Kim1, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Kevin Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Scholars using occupational socialization theory (Templin & Schempp, 1989) have studied physical education (PE) teacher work lives for decades to enhance our understanding of quality PE practices and teacher well-being (Richards et al., 2019). Comparatively, the socialization experiences of physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty are enigmatic (Brunsdon & Curtner-Smith, 2023), yet are an integral occupational group alone (Richards et al., 2022), and within the broader PE workforce system (Lawson et al., in press). PETE faculty are considered disciplinary stewards with evidence suggesting their role can be more desirable for inservice teachers who have become dissatisfied with the realities of schools (e.g., Richards et al., 2017). Despite evidence showing both fields can be considered marginalized and stressful, both inservice and PETE faculty are highly influential on envisioned and actualized PE practices. Thus, studying the socialization of these stakeholders is a priority. The purpose of this study was to compare the positive (i.e., perceived mattering, resilience) and negative (i.e., role stress, marginalization and isolation, emotional exhaustion) workplace experiences of male and female inservice PE teachers and PETE faculty members.
Method: This cross-sectional, exploratory, investigation (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013) drew upon datasets from two previous investigations in which PETE faculty members and PE teachers responded to previously validated surveys related to positive (i.e., perceived mattering, resilience) and negative (i.e., role stress, marginalization and isolation, emotional exhaustion) workplace experiences through online surveys. There was a total of 707 participants from the U.S. who worked as inservice PE teacher (n = 421) or PETE faculty members (n = 286). Among PE teachers, there were 209 females and 212 males, while the PETE faculty group included 151 females and 135 males.
Analysis/Results: Following successful reliability analysis, composite mean scores were utilized in a series of two-way (occupation x gender) factorial ANOVAs to explore how individuals in different groups reported workplace experiences (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Results highlighted that PETE faculty members reported higher perceived mattering and role conflict. PE teachers reported higher role ambiguity, emotional exhaustion, marginalization, and isolation. Males reported higher resilience, whereas females noted higher role ambiguity and emotional exhaustion. There was a significant interaction effect for role overload indicating that female faculty members perceived higher role overload than female PE teachers and their male PETE faculty counterparts.
Conclusions: The results indicate that reported workplace experiences of PETE faculty members and PE teachers are mixed. Nevertheless, PETE faculty generally perceived higher positive (i.e., perceived mattering) and lower negative (i.e., role ambiguity, emotional exhaustion, marginalization, and isolation) workplace experiences. Thus, careers in higher education may provide some affordances against stressors when compared to teaching in schools (Richards et al., 2017). Results further reinforce the importance of gender when examining workplace experiences (Guarino & Borden, 2017) and suggest that females may experience greater stress and exhaustion, particularly in higher education. While each group in the PE system is crucial and challenging, the status of PETE faculty appears to accompany perceived importance. The objective and perceived workplace differences and challenges between groups needs further investigation.
Development and Validation of the Teacher Motivation in Physical Education Questionnaire (TMPEQ)
Kelly L. Simonton1, University of Wyoming; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University
Background/Purpose: Effective teaching in physical education (PE) is a complex process that prompts teachers to make crucial decisions about learning. Teachers’ choices affect both student learning and their own well-being. Although a myriad of characteristics impact effective teaching, researchers consistently identify decisions concerning curriculum and instruction as most controllable. Despite calls for improved practices, many PE teachers lack the motivation to learn and implement innovative curriculum and instruction. Therefore, developing teacher motivation measures that capture beliefs about curriculum and instruction is needed and may shed light on promoting quality PE. Grounded in the Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT), this study developed and tested the psychometric properties of the Teacher Motivation in Physical Education Questionnaire (TMPEQ).
Method: Following two rounds of expert panel (N = 40) review of scale items to establish content validity, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on the TMPEQ survey (expectancy, value, and cost subcomponents) with the first sample of teachers (N = 373; Mage = 46.02, SD = 10.17; 50% Elem/Second). Next, a second sample of teachers (N = 400; Mage = 46.25, SD=10.29; 50% Elem/Second) was utilized for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), invariance testing, and structural modeling to compare relationships with the TMPEQ subcomponents with teachers’ perceived mattering, job satisfaction, job accomplishments, and potential turnover.
Analysis/Results: Initial content and construct validation resulted in an 18-item measure (six items for expectancy, value, and cost respectively). EFA results produced a three-factor model with acceptable fit (χ2 (102) = 239.80, p < .001, CFI= .937, TLI= .906) and eigen values over one. One item was removed for statistical and theoretical issues. All three factors met acceptable reliability scores (α > .70) and followed expected correlational patters with perceived mattering, job satisfaction, and job turnover. Sample two CFA results also produced acceptable model fit (χ2 (116) = 221.27, p < .001, CFI = .947, TLI = .938) and standardized factor loadings for each of three factors (β > .50). Follow up tests found that the measurement tool was invariant by teacher gender and grade level. Latent mean comparisons showed no statistical differences in reported motivation components reported by gender, but expectancy scores were slightly higher in secondary PE teachers as compared to elementary (no differences in value and cost). Structural model results (χ2 (220) = 350.11, p< .001, CFI= .948, TLI= .940) showed that expectancy beliefs were positively predictive of perceived accomplishment while cost was a negative predictor of accomplishment and positive for job turnover. Value beliefs were not statistically related to either outcome.
Conclusions: Teacher effectiveness is directly related to teacher motivation for engaging in quality instruction and curricular delivery. Understanding teacher motivation for offering the pillars of quality PE is foundational to understanding their well-being, satisfaction, and subsequent student outcomes. The TMPEQ has been rigorously tested to capture teacher motivation in a multi-dimensional way and was found reliable across teaching grade level and gender. Future research on teacher beliefs should utilize this tool to capture teacher motivation for effective instruction and curriculum delivery in PE.
Examining the Female Adolescents’ Physical Activity with Theory of Planned Behavior
Günay Yildizer1, Eskişehir Technical University and Hacettepe University; Gonca Eren, Eskişehir Technical University; Ahmet Sinan Türkyılmaz, Hacettepe University; Chung Gun Lee, Seoul National University
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) participation is one of the most important factors for the health and development of all adolescents. Female adolescents are more likely to be inactive than male adolescents, they are at a higher risk for chronic diseases associated with sedentary behavior and lower PA such as heart disease, obesity, and diabetes. Hence it is important to find out salient factors influencing PA and exercise participation among adolescent females in developing country context based on well-established theory. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) offers a well-validated model to predict, explain and change human behavior as well as capture the dynamic underlying intentions of the specific behaviors, including PA context. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between Ajzen’s TPB and high school-aged female adolescents’ PA levels.
Method: High school-aged (14-17 years old) female adolescents (n = 2757) completed the developed TPB-PA Questionnaire and Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A). The TPB-PA questionnaire was developed according to the elicitation study, and reliability and validity were confirmed previously. The multiple linear regression analysis was conducted for normally distributed data. Data was analyzed by using IBM SPSS version 24 (Chicago, IL).
Analysis/Results: The regression model was found to be significant [F(6,2508) = 108.983, p < 0.000, R2= 0.21]. The findings revealed that love for PA [(β = 0.027, CI (0.023-0.031), p < 0.000)], social expectation from PA [(β = 0.020, CI (0.010-0.029), p < 0.000)], perceived control over PA [(β = 0. 043, CI (0.035-0.048), p < 0.000)] were positively associated with PA score, while subjective norms between peers[(β =-0.021, CI (-0.031- -0.012), p < 0.000)] was inversely associated with PA score. The regression models were also separately analyzed for class level. The statistically significant regression models indicated that love for PA and perceived control over PA was significantly associated with PA score for all grades and social expectations were associated with PA score only for 10th and 11th graders, p<0.001. Subjective norms between peers were inversely associated with only 9th graders, p<0.05.
Conclusions: In conclusion, the findings of this study underscore the significant relationships between various TPB factors and PA scores. The regression model’s overall significance demonstrates that love for PA, perceived control over PA, and social expectations from PA participation collectively contribute to explaining PA behavior. Love for PA and perceived control over emerged as key positive predictors of PA scores across all class levels. These findings emphasize the importance of cultivating positive emotional connections with PA, as well as the influence of individual perceptions of control. Notably, subjective norms among peers exhibited a negative association with PA scores, particularly among 9th graders. This highlights the potential impact of peer influences on PA engagement, suggesting a need for targeted interventions in this age group. These insights contribute to our understanding of the multidimensional nature of factors influencing PA behaviors and can inform the development of more effective strategies to promote and encourage PA among adolescents.This research was funded by TUBITAK with project number 120K946.
Exploring Perceived Mattering in Physical Education Teacher Career Stages
Denis Schulz1, California State University San Marcos; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Victoria N. Shiver, Karen L. GaudreaultF, University of New Mexico; Kevin Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Previous research indicates that physical education (PE) continues to be perceived to be an inferior subject. PE teachers often experience frustration and struggle to be taken seriously within their profession. When these negative feelings are internalized, PE teachers may withdraw from using best practices and question their importance within the school. Perceived mattering can help navigate marginalization and the negative feelings associated with it. Grounded in the Teacher Career Cycle framework and the construct of perceived mattering, the purpose of this study was to explore the feelings of mattering within different career stages.
Method: Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 19 participants and analyzed using inductive and deductive guidelines.
Analysis/Results: Data construction revealed the following three themes (a) PE teachers expressed feelings of high mattering within two stages of the teacher career framework, (b) perceptions of mattering grow over time through intentional relationship building, and (c) feelings of enthusiasm are grounded in intrinsic motivation.
Conclusions: Support from school principals fosters a sense of importance. Teachers in the stages of competency building and enthusiasm and growth increase their feelings of mattering through participation in the community. Teachers report that reaching these stages can take several years. Teachers with high intrinsic motivation can overcome challenges during the first years of teaching.
Exploring Perceived Mattering in Physical Education Teacher Education Doctoral Students
Denis Schulz1, California State University San Marcos; Karen L. GaudreaultF, Victoria N. Shiver, University of New Mexico; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Kevin Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) doctoral programs lay the foundations for training PETE doctoral students to become PETE faculty members. Research indicates that the number of PETE doctoral programs is in decline. Consequently, PETE doctoral students are becoming increasingly concerned about their value as stewards of the profession. The purpose of this study was to explore PETE doctoral students’ feelings of mattering within their doctoral programs.
Method: Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 16 doctoral students across the US nation.
Analysis/Results: Using Merriam & Tisdell’s (2016) approach for analyzing qualitative data, the study revealed four distinct themes (a) faculty members can induce feelings of mattering and anti-mattering, (b) importance grows over time, (c) peer support matters, and (d) gender and race influence perceptions of mattering.
Conclusions: As time passes, doctoral students’ feelings of mattering grow as they take on more responsibilities, increasing their sense of importance. The level of support provided by faculty members and peers can strongly impact doctoral students’ perceptions of mattering. Celebrating achievements with peers can serve as a way for students to extend their self-worth. Females and historically marginalized groups may experience increased feelings of self-doubt. Intentionally nurturing a sense of mattering and acknowledging the diverse backgrounds of each student can significantly improve the quality of a doctoral program. Moreover, peer support enhances doctoral students’ perceptions of mattering.
Exploring Perceptions of Mattering In Physical Education Teacher Education Faculty
Denis Schulz1, California State University San Marcos; Kevin Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; Karen L. GaudreaultF, Victoria N. Shiver, University of New Mexico; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) faculty members are leaders of the PETE profession. Their duties involve generating new knowledge, training emerging PE teachers, serving the community, and mentoring future PETE scholars. Despite playing a pivotal role in higher education, little research exists documenting their perceptions of mattering within higher education. This study aimed to explore the construct of perceived mattering within PETE faculty members and how these feelings of significance interact within the sociopolitical structures of higher education.
Method: Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 30 PETE faculty members within the US. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed inductively and deductively.
Analysis/Results: Analysis of data revealed three major themes (a) the importance of outside networking & service, (b) the need for acceptance and hierarchical dependence, (c) teaching/research conflict.
Conclusions: Creating community partnerships with local schools, providing proper guidance throughout faculty socialization, and embracing mentorship during early career years, can help increase feelings of mattering within PETE faculty members and realign the bigger purpose of physical education within the educational system.
Exploring the Development of Pre-Service Teachers Knowledge and Ability to Use The Spectrum of Teaching Styles Across One Year
Celina Espinoza1, Aimee Gray, Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: The spectrum of teaching styles (Spectrum) is an essential framework for physical education (PE) teachers in meeting the diverse needs of learners. Research suggests that having knowledge of the Spectrum can enhance instructional effectiveness, student learning, and engagement in PE. Despite the research, our understanding of how pre-services teachers (PSTs) learn and use the styles is underdeveloped. Previous literature suggests that the Spectrum should be used to reframe PSTs subjective theories and how Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs must target the mental models (i.e., what is teaching and learning) of PSTs to improve their pedagogical readiness. The purpose of this study was to track PSTs learning experiences about the Spectrum across their first year in a PETE program. The aim was to understand how their teaching practicum experiences shape and influence their perceived usefulness and ability in using the Spectrum.
Method: PSTs in their first PETE year (N= 11; 7 Female and 4 male) from one university participated in this study. Using a mixed methods approach, PSTs participated in a survey measuring their perceived usefulness and ability in using the styles at three time points (entry into PETE, following semesters one, and two). The survey also included open-ended questions (i.e, experience, perceived advantages/disadvantages, etc). In addition, a subsample of PSTs (n= 6) completed two semi-structured interviews at the end of the first and second semesters. All interviews and open-ended responses were transcribed and coded to explore trends in the data as to the PSTs perceptions of training and using the spectrum within their practicums.
Analysis/Results: Survey data analysis (Repeated Measures ANOVA) showed that all reproductive styles (A-E) showed positive trends across all three time points for perceived usefulness. For perceived ability, significant changes occurred in styles B, C, and D, and although all scores improved by time 3, some trends were not linear. Similarly, all three productive styles (F-H) showed significant positive trends in perceived usefulness and ability. Using Merriam and Tisdell’s (2015) four stage approach, the qualitative analysis revealed the following trends, first that PSTs were able to recognize the Spectrums’ impact on student engagement and critical thinking, specifically (a) a variety of styles affect learning engagement but knowing which is difficult and (b) styles can meet diverse student needs through empowerment. Secondly, PSTs expressed that structured discussion and reflection time was crucial in their development as it (a) increased their understanding of how students learn and (b) increased awareness of their own teaching practices.
Conclusions: PSTs were able to make a connection between the usefulness of styles and student learning through discussion, practice, and reflection. However, one year of initial training had more impact on their understanding than ability to implement the styles effectively. The styles can enhance PSTs pedagogical toolbox and be used to reshape how they view the teaching and learning process, but time is needed. PETE programs must include structured reflection and discussion within courses to ensure PSTs have time to challenge their subjective theories and reshape their mental model of teaching PE.
Following Pre-service Physical Education Teacher’s Construction of Sociopolitical Knowledge Within Their PETE Program
Aimee Gray1, Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Karen L. GaudreaultF, University of New Mexico
Background/Purpose: While PETE programs aim to prepare PSTs in the technical aspects of teaching, less focus is given to providing PSTs with intentional training on the skills needed to successfully navigate the sociopolitical aspects of teaching. While research has indicated that PSTs may have a general awareness of the sociopolitical factors within school environments that impact PE, seldom do they possess the skills necessary to effectively navigate the profession. This is problematic as marginality, burnout, and role stress significantly contribute to career exit and teacher attrition. Scholars argue that it is essential for PSTs to understand the realities of navigating teaching a marginalized subject. The purpose of this study was to explore PSTs awareness and construction of their knowledge of sociopolitical factors influencing teaching PE across their first year in a PETE program.
Method: PSTs (N=9) who are currently enrolled a PETE program at one university in the western US, participated in this study. Data were collected throughout the first two semesters of the program using individual interviews, participant reflective journal entries, and researcher observation notes. All data were transcribed and analyzed using Merriam & Tisdell’s (2015) four stage process of open coding, axial coding, categorization, and theme development. Trustworthiness was ensured through data triangulation, peer debriefing, and negative case analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Analysis/Results: Data revealed that PSTs were experiencing and developing awareness of the sociopolitical factors of teaching PE through both coursework and field experiences. Consistent with existing literature, PSTs experienced K-12 programming leading them to perceive that PE is “an easy, fun subject to teach”. Despite this, field experiences caused PSTs to reevaluate previously held perceptions and begin to recognize that being a PE teacher is important yet difficult. During reflection, students questioned the authenticity of what they experienced and what they were learning about PE, from a PST perspective, in schools. Further, field experiences led PSTs to describe a misconception of PE by stakeholders in the school community. Finally, PSTs described the belief that the PE teacher plays a significant role in the degree to which PE is valued and the status it holds in schools.
Conclusions: Our study revealed that while acculturation experiences are significant in PST perspectives, quality PETE programming and early exposure and field experiences can begin to shift these previously held beliefs. We argue that PETE programs need to imbed ongoing and formalized self-reflection opportunities in order to enhance PST understanding of the sociopolitical issues influencing PE teachers’ work. This can be enhanced through focused opportunities to observe and interact with PE teachers within the social environment of schools beyond simply teaching lessons in the gym. In addition, the formalized self-reflection opportunities need to include deliberate challenges to previously held experiences, with a focus on what is PE in schools and the community, and what does it mean to be a PE teacher compared to previous subjective theories. Through these innovative reflective practices, PETE programs will better prepare PSTs for the realities of both the social and technical aspects of teaching.
Logistic Regression: Motivational Constructs Contributing to Becoming Habitual/Regular Exercisers
Wenhao LiuF1, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Based on the Transtheoretical Model, exercise stages or levels are associated with physical activity motivational constructs. This study was intended to further investigate this association by examining (a) what motivational constructs would significantly contribute to becoming habitual and regular (HR) exercisers and (b) how accurately the motivational constructs that people hold would classify HR exercisers and non-HR exercisers.
Method: Participants were 277 college students (Mean age: 20.99 ± 1.52, 114 females) in the US. Relevant surveys (CDC, 1999; Marcus & Forsyth, 2009) were used to assess following six motivational constructs: perceived physical activity (PA) barriers; perceived pros of exercise; perceived cons of exercise; self-efficacy of exercise; cognitive processes of change, which are cognitive strategies people use to change or improve their PA behaviors such as increasing PA knowledge; and behavioral processes of change, which are behavioral PA-promotion strategies used by people such as committing oneself. In addition, exercise stage was assessed with the exercise stage survey, which classified participants into two groups of exercisers: 161 students (60 females) were in a HR exerciser group, performing regular exercise as a habit and meeting Federal PA Guidelines (FPAG) for at least six months; and 116 (54 females) in a non-HR exerciser group, including those having no exercise, those having some exercise, and those having regular exercise but meeting FPAG for fewer than six months. A logistic regression was run with the six motivational constructs and sex as predictors, and the HR exercisers as the predicted event.
Analysis/Results: The results showed that the predictors, as a whole, were significantly associated with the HR exercisers with -2 log likelihood = 249.28, omnibus χ2(7) = 127.39, p < .001; and Nagelkerke R2 = .50, explaining 50% of variance of the outcome. The following two motivational constructs contributed significantly to becoming a HR exerciser: behavioral processes of change, with B = .32, Wald χ2(1) = 14.86, p < .001, and Exp(B) (i.e., odds ratio) = 1.37; and self-efficacy of exercise, with B = .23, Wald χ2(1) = 16.87, p < .001, and Exp(B) = 1.25. In addition, the correct classification rate was 85.1% for the HR exercisers, 73.3% for the non-HR exercisers, and 80.1% for the overall.
Conclusions: Although the predictors, as a whole, can explain 50% of variance of the outcome, only two motivational constructs contribute significantly to people becoming HR exercisers while holding the other predictors constant. More specifically, one-point increase in “behavioral processes of change” and in “self-efficacy of exercise” will increase the likelihood in becoming a HR exerciser by 37% (1.37 – 1) and by 25% (1.25 – 1), respectively. In addition, the predictors demonstrate a high overall classification accuracy (80.1%) in distinguishing the HR exercisers and the non-HR exercisers. All the results, however, are limited to university students.
Modelling Relationships Between Attitude, Habit Strength, Intention, and Exercise Behavior
Yubing Wang1, Old Dominion University; Yaogang Han, Pan Li, Binn Zhang, Shanghai University of Sport
Background/Purpose: One primary goal of physical education (PE) is to help students develop a physically active lifestyle which, in essence, is to help students develop a lifelong habit of doing physical activity (PA). Habitual behaviors and intentional behaviors are governed by different underlying mechanisms in that habitual behaviors are mainly influenced by habit strength and intentional behaviors are determined the strength of intention. Many scholars have argued that PA behavior is hard, if not impossible, to be a 100% habitual behavior because of the complexity of PA behavior. Thus, a person’s PA behavior tends to be guided partly by intention and partly by habit strength. This phenomenon elicits a debate on moderating role of habit on intention-behavior relationships. Some scholars argue that people with higher habit strength tend to rely less on intention to act, which means that habit negative moderates the relationship between intention and behavior. Some other scholars propose that habit is a catalyst of the translation of intention into action because higher habit strength makes the cognitive effort of this translation less taxing. On purpose of this study was to examine the moderation effect of habit strength on intention-behavior relationships.
Since helping students develop a habit of doing PA is an important goal of PE, it is important to understand the factors that can influence the formation of habit. Attitude has been recognized as an important factor influencing people’s intention to do PA. It is still unclear about the relationship between attitude and habit strength. It has been found that pleasantness or immediate reward are important to form a habit. Thus, we hypothesized that affective attitude would be a significant predictor of habit strength.
Based on the above conceptualizations, a model integrating cognitive and affective attitude, habit strength, intention, and PA behavior was developed, which include the relationship of attitude and habit strength and the interaction effects of habit strength and intention on PA behavior. The purpose of this study was to test this model.
Method: A total of 1860 college students completed this study. All variables were measured using validated self-report questionnaires. Structural equation modeling and Hayes’ PROCESS program (model 1) were conducted to address the research questions.
Analysis/Results: Results showed the model fit well with the data (χ2 = 1975.388, df = 351, p < .01; RMSEA = .049; CFI = .978; TLI = .970). Affective attitude positively and significantly influenced habit strength (β=.699, p < .01). The effect of cognitive attitude on habit strength was significant and negative with a small effect size (β = –-.075, p < .01). Habit significantly and positively moderated the effects of intention on PA behavior (β = .084, p < .01). The higher the habit strength, the larger the effects of intention on PA behavior.
Conclusions: Affective attitude significantly predicts PA habit strength, which suggests that increasing people’s affective attitude toward PA can facilitate their formation of PA habit. Habit strength is a catalyst of the translation of PA intention into PA behavior. People with higher PA habit strength are more likely to act on their PA intentions.
Motivation within Hybrid Pedagogical Models: A Systematic Review
Meghan Dennis1, Oleg A. SinelnikovF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: Models-based practice through use of pedagogical models offers an alternative to traditional teacher-centered instruction (Hastie et al., 2021; Kirk, 2013; Metzler, 2017). Pedagogical models combine elements of curriculum and instructional models to deliver content through a set of non-negotiable instructional practices and a specific and well-defined focus (Casey et al., 2021; Metzler, 2017; Sinelnikov & Hastie, 2016). Research has also indicated that pedagogical models can cause an increase of student autonomy and thus increase motivation within PE classes (Vallerand, 2007). Shared features present the opportunity to be able to combine elements of different pedagogical models to create hybrid models for teaching physical education (Gonzales-Villora et al., 2019). Despite an increase in motivational research within hybrid models, to date, there have been no attempts at providing a synthesis of existing literature surrounding motivation and hybrid pedagogical models. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to provide a systematic review and synthesis of motivational research within hybrid pedagogical models in the existing literature, as well as recommendations for future research within this area of study. This study was framed using Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2021) and Achievement Goal Theory (AGT; Ames, 1992; Nicholls, 1984).
Method: Following PRISMA protocol for reporting systematic reviews, a systematic search of five electronic databases (SCOPUS, EBSCOHost, ERIC, Web of Science and Google Scholar) including published articles published through May 2023 was conducted (Moher et al., 2009). Articles were reviewed and categorized using inclusion and exclusion criteria. Seventeen studies focusing on motivational research within hybrid pedagogical models that fit the selection criteria were included in the review.
Analysis/Results: Relevant information from each study was assessed by hybridization, study focus, framework, research design, and motivational outcomes. Nine variations of hybrid pedagogical models were identified in the literature. The primary hybrid type included ‘Sport Education + one model’ and most studies (n = 8) focused on the students’ perceived motivation within hybrid units. Three studies targeted differences in gender when examining perception of the model whereas five studies focused on teachers’ perception when teaching a hybrid model. Lastly, seven research articles focused on how hybridizations impact on motivation in comparison to singular pedagogical models. All studies featured students experiencing a hybrid pedagogical model in either elementary or secondary school PE. Research design indicated that quantitative methods (n = 8), qualitative methods (n = 5), and mixed methods (n = 4) were utilized. SDT was the most frequently used theoretical framework (n = 11). Regardless of hybridization type or research design, the majority of studies (n = 15) found positive motivational outcomes including increased participation, increased enjoyment and an increase in students’ basic psychological needs.
Conclusions: The findings of this systematic literature review revealed that hybrid pedagogical models, generally, promoted an increase of motivation within PE settings. Specifically, this systematic review demonstrated that empirical evidence to date largely supports claims that the hybridization of various pedagogical models positively impacts motivational outcomes in PE based on Self-Determination Theory and Achievement Goal Theory frameworks.
Partial Correlation: Reexamining Perceived Barriers to PA among Young Adults
Wenhao LiuF1, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Barriers to Being Active Quiz (CDC, 1999) yields seven physical activity (PA) barrier variables: lack of time, social influence, lack of energy, lack of willpower, fear of injury, lack of skill, and lack of resources. Although these barriers to PA have been widely examined, relationships among these barriers are seldom reported. In addition, in their discriminant analysis, Liu and Kovacs (2021) found that “willpower” was the only significant dimension representing the other PA barrier variables among university students, implying that the “lack of willpower” might be a common cause variable shared by the other PA barrier variables. With partial correlation, this study further examined the relationship among the seven PA-barrier variables mentioned above, especially how the “willpower” would have effect on the other six non-willpower variables of PA barriers.
Method: Barriers to Being Active Quiz was administered to 70 university students (mean age: 20.89 ±1.07: 31 females). Partial correlation was run to examine (a) zero-order correlations among the seven PA barrier variables, and (b) partial correlations among the six non-willpower PA barrier variables, controlling for “lack of willpower”. Effect sizes (r values) and significances (p values) were then compared between the two sets of correlations for the six non-willpower PA barrier variables. The Bonferroni approach was used to control Type I error across 21 zero-order correlations and 15 partial correlations. Thus, p value for significance was .0024 (.05 ÷ 21) and .0033 (.05 ÷ 15) for the zero-order correlations and the partial correlations, respectively.
Analysis/Results: In the zero-order correlations, all the effect sizes were large (r ≥ .50) or medium (r ≥ .30), except three ones with small effect sizes (r ≥.10), and all the p values were significant (p < .0024) except three ones. In contrast, with the partial correlations, the effect sizes reduced by one level (i.e., from large to medium, or from medium to small) in seven correlations, and the significant p values (p < .0033) dropped to non-significance in six correlations. However, the effect sizes remained large (r ≥ .50) in two partial correlations and medium (r ≥ .30) in eight, and the p values were still significant (p < .0033) in seven partial correlations.
Conclusions: When the “willpower” is held constant, the strength of correlation among the six non-willpower PA barriers decreases significantly compared to the condition of the zero-order correlation, indicating that the “willpower” variable has considerable effect on the other non-willpower PA barriers. However, the effect of “willpower” on the other non-willpower PA barriers should not be overstated, because most non-willpower PA barriers tend to correlate with one another even holding constant “willpower”. Thus, a comprehensive intervention plan with some weight to the “willpower” is appropriate for university students in terms of overcoming barriers to PA.
Perceived Competence and Achievement Goals in a Summer Sports Camp
Ping XiangF1, Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University; Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas at San Antonio; Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University; Jihye Lee, Dallas
Background/Purpose: Perceived competence (PC) refers to how students evaluate their competence in physical activity settings. Task mastery, personal improvement, or outperforming others are three standards primarily used for one’s competence evaluation (Elliot, 1999), resulting in PC mastery, PC self, and PC other (Spray & Warburton, 2011). According to achievement goal theory (Elliot, 1999), the three types of PCs predict students’ adoption of achievement goals differently; achievement goals not only influence students’ motivational outcomes but also mediate the relationship between PCs and motivational outcomes of students. However, such interrelationships have not been extensively examined in summer sports camps. Therefore, this study examined whether PCs predicted the adoption of achievement goals differently and whether achievement goals mediated the relationship between PCs and intention for future participation (IFP) in physical activity among adolescent boys in a summer sports camp.
Method: Participants were 98 at-risk boys (Mage = 11.88, SD = 1.21) enrolled in a summer sports camp in Southwest. Among them, 18 (20.7%) were White, 18 (20.7%) Black, 46 (52.9%) Hispanic, and 5 (5.7%) Other. Questionnaires (Guan et al., 2007; Spray & Warburton, 2011) were administered to assess PCs, achievement goals (mastery-approach (MAp), performance-approach (PAp), mastery-avoidance (MAv), performance-avoidance (MAv)), and IFP. The boys rated each question on a 5-point Likert scale. A series of data analyses were performed, including data screening, construct validity, scale reliability, correlations, and structural equation modeling.
Analysis/Results: Construct validity for the PCs and IFP scales were acceptable, but not for the achievement goals scale. Due to low construct validity and scale reliability (Cronbach’s αs < .60), MAv and PAv were dropped from further analyses. The analysis of structural equation model revealed that the proposed model displayed a favorable fit with the data (χ2(76) = 82.98, p = .27; RMSEA = .03; CFI = .99). Moreover, PC mastery exhibited a positive prediction of MAp (λ = .80, p < .01), PC other positively predicted PAp (λ = .72, p < .01) and negatively predicted MAp (λ = -.40, p < .01), and MAp had a positive effect on IFP (λ = .56, p < .01). No significant mediation effects from PCs to IFP were detected. Lastly, the proposed model accounted for approximately 39% of the variance in IFP (p < .01).
Conclusions: Significant predictions from PC mastery and PC other to MAp and PAp observed in this study provide additional support for achievement goal theory that PC plays different roles in predicting the adoption of achievement goals. The finding that PC other positively predicted PAp is consistent with Spray and Warburton (2011) with a sample of students aged 11 and 15 years in England. However, contrary to achievement goal theory, MAp and PAp failed to mediate the relationship between PCs and IFP. Given the results of this study, we recommend that researchers continue this line of inquiry to gain more understanding of the interrelationships between PCs, achievement goals, and motivational outcomes in summer sports camps.
Prediction of Physical Education Teachers’ Job Satisfaction Through Self-Determination Theory
Myung Ha Sur1, University of South Carolina; Jaehun Jung, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater
Background/Purpose: Physical education teachers are at risk of experiencing stress or burnout, which is one of the reasons for them to decide to leave the field of education sooner than planned. Although various supports are provided to improve the retention rate of teachers, many physical education teachers quit their job at the early stage of their careers. Job satisfaction is an important indicator for predicting teachers’ retention in the field of education, and the self-determination theory can be utilized to predict job satisfaction. According to the self-determination theory, enhanced autonomy, competence, and relatedness in teaching in school setting will lead to increased self-determined motivation to stay in the physical education profession for a longer duration with greater satisfaction. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to examine the predictive effects of self-determination theory components in school setting on the job satisfaction of physical education teachers.
Method: The data were obtained from the National Teacher and Principal Survey for Public School Teachers in 2020-2021 academic year. The system selected approximately 1,400 physical education teachers for the analysis. Items related to autonomy, relatedness, and job satisfaction were chosen to be analyzed. Notably, no items were selected to measure competence, as the survey itself does not assess teaching competence. Descriptive statistics were conducted to comprehend the demographic information of the participants and the distribution of scores of the selected survey items. Logistic regression was performed to investigate the predictive effects of survey items related to the self-determination theory on-the-job satisfaction.
Analysis/Results: About 92% of physical education teachers expressed somewhat or totally satisfied with their job. Moreover, the majority of the physical education teachers (Ranging from 84% to 93%) indicated that they have autonomy in selecting contents, teaching techniques, and grading students. In relatedness items, physical education teachers perceived that they are supported by school administration, staff, and colleagues (Ranging from 85% to 88%). Items associated with relatedness statistically significantly predicted the job satisfaction of physical education teachers (OR = 2.42-6.74, p < .05), whereas autonomy related items did not (p > .05).
Conclusions: The study’s findings suggest that physical education teachers’ job satisfaction can be influenced by their ability to establish and maintain positive relationships with various school members, including school administrators, staffs, and colleagues. Physical education teachers often experience isolation, due to the physical separation of their office and gym space from other people, resulting in limited interactions with fellow school members. It is recommended for school administrators to provide opportunities for physical education teachers to cultivate positive relationships with their peers across the school. This proactive approach can enhance job satisfaction, ultimately contributing to a higher retention rate of physical educators within the education field.
Shaping Success: Grit’s Impact on Preservice PE Teachers’ Motivational Mechanism
Joonyoung Lee1, Jackson State University; Jinwoo Park, Pusan National University
Background/Purpose: “Grit” refers to the combinations of perseverance of effort and consistency of interest when facing challenges or setbacks, which are crucial in maintaining long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007). Physical education teacher education (PETE) for preservice PE teachers (PPETs) is increasingly recognized as a vital component of teacher preparation, underlining the importance of continuously monitoring their resilience and dedication towards long-term objectives. Despite the significance of these elements, few studies have explored the potential mechanisms linking grit with motivational variables within PE contexts. Therefore, we aimed to investigate how the grit of PPETs influences their motivation and achievement goals, which may subsequently impact their intentions to become PE teachers.
Method: A total of 279 PPETs (69.5% male; 26.9% graduate students), who enrolled in PE degree programs in public universities in South Korea, responded to validated questionnaires designed to measure grit (i.e., perseverance of effort and consistency of interest), academic motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation), achievement goal orientation (i.e., mastery approach goals, performance approach goals, and performance avoidance goals), and intention (e.g., becoming a PE teacher). To examine the relationships among these variables, correlation analyses were initially conducted. Following this, structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied not only to assess both the direct and indirect effects of these relationships but also to test a hypothesized model.
Analysis/Results: The correlation analysis revealed both positive and negative associations between the grit scales and motivational variables. Specifically, (a) grit-perseverance of effort demonstrated significant impact on amotivation, intrinsic motivation, performance approach goals, and mastery approach goals (rs ranging from -.28 to .38, p < .01), while (b) grit-consistence of interest significantly influenced mastery approach goals, amotivation, performance approach goals, intrinsic motivation, and intention (rs ranging from -.26 to .38, p < .01). Furthermore, the SEM results confirmed the hypothesized model’s goodness-of-fit (χ2/df = 2.053, RMSEA = .062, IFI = .92, TLI = .91, and CFI = .92; Hu & Bentler, 1999).
Conclusions: This study’s findings highlight the crucial role of grit, encompassing both perseverance of effort and consistency of interest, in shaping the motivation and achievement goals of PPETs. The SEM validated the proposed model, indicating that grit’s influence extends beyond direct impact on motivation and goals to indirect effects as well, which underscores the need to foster grit in PPETs during their professional preparation. These insights suggest potential benefits for PETE programs from integrating strategies to develop grit into their curricula. Such an approach could better prepare future PE teachers by enhancing their resilience, commitment to their goals, and motivation, thereby positively influencing their intention to remain in the profession.
Students’ Self-Efficacy for Social Emotional Learning Constructs Across a One-Year Physical Activity Afterschool Program
Katie A. Juarez1, Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Victoria N. Shiver, University of New Mexico
Background/Purpose: A breadth of research shows the positive impact that afterschool programs can have in targeting both physical activity (PA) behaviors and social-emotional learning (SEL), particularly in the short-term development of youth. However, two gaps have been identified which include comprehensive evaluation of SEL learning and the limited longitudinal assessment, particularly for elementary students. Evidence suggests the ‘big two’ competencies, personal and social responsibility, are measured most frequently, but other competencies receive less attention. In addition, while capturing behavior change is less evident, the perceived efficacy that youth may develop in these concepts appears to be a more state-like characteristic that can be captured as learning occurs. The purpose of this study was to investigate students’ perceptions of their self-efficacy for multiple SEL competencies across a one-year PA afterschool program focused on teaching SEL.
Method: Youth participants (N = 224; 56% Male; Mage= 9.25) from 10 elementary schools participated in an afterschool program offered by trained physical education teachers and assistants. Using a mixed methods approach, youth participants completed a survey on self-efficacy for SEL (efficacy, self-management, social awareness, growth mindset) and their PA intention at four points in the program. All students participated in school level focus group interviews (n = 8 per school) as well. Descriptive statistics and targeted repeated measures analysis of variance was used to explore survey data. Additionally, all interviews were transcribed and coded to identify major trends in understanding student self-efficacy for engaging in SEL skills in and out of the program.
Analysis/Results: Survey results showed no significant changes across the four time points in the four SEL competencies. Mean trends showed that perceptions were maintained and in conjunction with qualitative analysis, students understanding was deepening, but not shifting behaviors. Trends revealed that greater student awareness of SEL accompanies more accurate self-perceptions. Qualitative trends were: (a) trust and development takes time; (b) a transition from simply following rules to truly understanding social behaviors; (c) emotions are as powerful as knowledge; (d) students can embrace communication and reflection. Students began not feeling connected to their peers and found it difficult to communicate and share. However, over time students developed trust, learned how to reflect on their actions, and made connections to the SEL competencies. Students also developed their understanding of how individual decision making can impact others. Lastly, while students made positive individual improvements, it appears that some SEL skills might be too advanced for students’ abilities. Thus, they are not yet able to put them into practice.
Conclusions: Results suggest even though students are continuing to develop their skills, more time is needed to see additional changes in their SEL competencies. Students made progress in connecting with peers, understanding behavior, and recognizing their emotions during the ASP over a 1-year span. Participants reflected on their decision making and emotions in different situations in and out of school, indicating that there needs to be more time developing critical thinking and implementation of SEL competencies in present scenarios.
The Effects of Relatedness Support on Motivational Profiles in Rural vs. Urban Physical Education Students
Corbin Stringham, Lethbridige School Division; Keven Prusak1, David Barney, Carol Wilkinson, Brigham Young University
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the degree to which relatedness support affects motivational profiles in rural vs. urban physical education (PE) students. Participants included rural (n = 177) and urban (n = 431) junior high/high school students (grades 5-12) from Alberta, a western province in Canada (n = 508), and Utah, a state in the intermountain west of the USA (n = 100).
Method: This cross-sectional study measured and assessed students’ basic psychological needs of student-to-student relatedness, student-to-teacher relatedness, competence, and autonomy using a revised version of the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS-R). Situational motivation was measured and assessed using the Situational Intrinsic Motivation Scale – Physical Education (SIMS-PE). For data analysis, MANOVA was used to examine significant differences among group variables (urban and rural, gender, and state) for selected variables (basic psychological needs indices and motivational indices).
Analysis/Results: Significant rural vs. urban effects were noted for basic psychological needs and reveal urban students as having significantly more student-to-teacher relatedness (p = .032), competence (p = .001), and autonomy (p = .002) than rural students. Significant rural vs. urban effects were also noted for motivational indices and reveal urban students as having significantly more intrinsic motivation (p < .001), identified regulation (p = .001), and higher Self- Determination Index (SDI) scores (p < .001) than rural students. Significant state effects reveal Alberta students are significantly more intrinsically motivated (p < .001) than Utah students.
Conclusions: Due to sheer population size of metropolitan areas, urban students inherently have more PE options and more funding, which possibly allows them to experience greater autonomy and competence. Limited choices in rural schools could be a contributing factor for lower autonomy and competence measures. Rural PE teachers oftentimes teach other core subjects, which possibly makes PE classes less engaging and rigid, thereby causing lower relatedness between teacher and student. The Covid-19 pandemic has predominately paused extracurricular physical activities in urban settings, potentially catalyzing greater meaning and importance in urban PE; possibly initiating greater self-determined motivation for urban students.
Rural PE teachers are recommended to be intentional with their relatedness support. PE teachers should adopt a holistic approach to satisfying the basic psychological needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy instead of focusing on one need at the expense of others.
Why All the Fuss About Pickleball?
Zack Beddoes1, Bringham Young University; David Barney, Keven Prusak, Brigham Young University
Background/Purpose: Pickleball is the fastest growing sport in America. Its’ appeal to the mature population, 40 years of age and older, is quickly becoming a widespread phenomenon. Engagement in pickleball can potentially enhance social interaction and increase health-enhancing levels of physical activity. Understanding why a growing number of adults, especially older adults, are engaging in the sport could have implications for increasing the physical activity levels and social engagement opportunities for others. Drawing from Self Determination Theory (SDT), the purpose of this study was to understand the motivational profiles of older adults who regularly participated in pickleball.
Method: This study used mixed methodology and included 272 adults (114 males and 157 females) 40 years of age or older. The survey consisted of a modified version of the 16 item-four subscale Situational Motivational Scale (SIMS) followed by open-ended questions. Surveys were dispensed as a Qualtrics survey link via email to all participants.
Analysis/Results: The 16 items of the SIMS were reduced to four subscales by calculating the average of each of the four corresponding items. Subsequent analyses were conducted on these subscale scores. Internal consistency was assessed by calculating a Cronbach alpha. Pearson correlations were calculated among respective subscale scores to assess the stability of the underlying simplex pattern (i.e., strongest correlations between adjacent subscales). Other data collected from this study was four open-ended questions on the survey. The researchers analyzed all the open-ended responses from the survey. The researchers then read and re-read the data until common themes became evident. The overall population demonstrated high levels of IM (M=6.42; SD= .60), IR (M= 6.33; SD= .70), and low levels of ER (M=1.58; SD= 1.0) and AM (M= 2.16; SD= .56) as expected, suggesting that participants were decidedly more self-determined than not. The strength and direction as reported in Table 3 indicate a positive relationship between IM and IR subscales and a negative relationship with ER and AM. Between gender differences were found with females exhibiting significantly higher levels of IM (F(2, 269) = 6.40, p = .002) and IR (F(2, 269) = 18.92, p < .001) and SDI (F(2, 269) = 9.13, p < .001). Further, no significant differences were noted between genders with respect to ER nor AM. One example for the open-ended responses includes: “The fun, challenge, exercise and most importantly the friendship. I am 72 and have friends from their 30’s to the 80’s. It’s so much more than just the game. It’s an incredible community. We laugh every day! If someone is having problems, we are there for them. It’s a family.”
Conclusions: This study carries implications beyond the sport of pickleball. Activities like pickleball seem to invite the fulfillment of the motivational needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness in the older population. The construct of relatedness is important. Human beings are social creatures with an inherent need to associate with others. In designing or redesigning physical activity opportunities for adults or children, it is important that provisions for social interaction are made.
500/500
Motor Behavior
A Comparative Study on Fundamental Movement Skills Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typically Developing Children Aged 7-10
LiangShan Dong1, China University of Geosciences; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University; Yanli Pang, Central China Normal University; Yu Song, Jimei University; Jin Bo, Eastern Michigan University
Background/Purpose: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction, communication, and a wide range of behavioral deficits. While the focus has largely been on sociability and communication impairments, recent studies have shed light on the pivotal role of motor deficits in the symptomatology of ASD. These deficits and delays in motor behaviors could significantly impact the typical development of movement skills in children with ASD. However, there is a noticeable dearth of research addressing motor behavior among children with ASD, particularly in China. Against this backdrop, the purpose of this study was to explore the development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) in children with ASD and compare them to typically developing children.
Method: The study recruited 108 children with ASD (87 males, 21 females) aged 7-10 years from two special education rehabilitation centers in Wuhan, China. A comparison group of 108 typically developing children, matched for gender and age, were randomly selected from three local primary schools. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children - Second Edition (MABC-2) was employed to evaluate FMS, including manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and static and dynamic balance.
Analysis/Results: Findings revealed that approximately 80% of children with ASD experienced motor difficulty or were at risk for motor delay. The ASD group exhibited significantly lower standard scores in manual dexterity, ball skills, and static and dynamic balance, in comparison to their typically developing counterparts (all p < 0.001). No significant gender difference was found (all p > 0.05).
Conclusions: This study reveals significant motor deficits in children with ASD compared to typically developing children, underlining the importance of integrating motor function assessments into ASD diagnosis. Evidence-based movement interventions should be integrated if motor impairments are present. Longitudinal research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying atypical motor trajectories in ASD. Comprehensive assessment and targeted early intervention of core and motor deficits will enable optimized developmental outcomes.
Associations Between Motor Skills and Neuro-Psychomotor Development in Urban Kindergarteners
Samantha Moss1, SUNY Cortland; Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington; Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: This study aimed to 1) examine gender disparities in fundamental motor skills ([FMS] including ball skills and locomotor skills) and psychomotor speed (i.e., choice movement time [CMT], choice reaction time [CRT], single movement time [SMT], single reaction time [SRT]) in kindergarteners, and 2) investigate relations between FMS and psychomotor speed in urban kindergarteners.
Method: Using a cross-sectional design, 94 kindergarteners (Mage=5.37 years, 75.9% non-Hispanic, 52.1% boys) were recruited from elementary schools. FMS were measured via Test of Gross Motor Development – 3rd edition assessing seven ball skills (i.e., two-hand strike, dribble, forehand strike, kick, catch, overhand throw, and underhand throw) and six locomotor skills (i.e., run, gallop, skip, hop, jump, and slide). Psychomotor speed was measured via iPad-based Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) using the reaction time (RTI) assessment measuring SMT, CMT, SRT, and CRT. Descriptive statistics and the independent samples t-test was conducted to examine gender disparities. Further, correlation analysis and multiple linear regressions (controlling for gender and socio-economic status) were performed to investigate relations between FMS and cognitive function.
Analysis/Results: Most children did not meet age-gender specified proficiency levels in ball skills (81.9%) or locomotor skills (77.4%). Both genders performed similarly in ball skills (girls: 7.76 ± 1.82 vs. boys: 7.47 ± 2.55, Cohen’s d = .13, respectively) and locomotor skills (girls: 7.82 ± 2.24 vs. boys: 7.77 ± 2.11, Cohen’s d = .01). Boys outperformed girls in CMT (276.00ms ± 65.33 vs. 301.61ms ± 87.42, Cohen’s d = .33), CRT (549.61 ± 105.62 vs. 639.1233 ± 193.02, Cohen’s d = .58), and SRT (506.02 ± 97.76 vs. 549.10 ± 133.81, Cohen’s d = .37), but both genders performed similarly on SMT (254.03 ± 75.95 vs. 250.22 ± 60.81, Cohen’s d = .05). The independent samples t-test showed significant gender disparities (boys outperforming girls) in CRT (p<.01) and SRT (p < .05). Correlation analyses revealed significant associations of both two-hand strike (r = –.288, p < .05) and forehand strike (r = –.240, p < .05) with CMT regardless of sex and SES. Regarding locomotor skills, hop was significantly associated with CMT (r = –.249, p < .05) and SMT (r = –.250, p < .05). Slide was significantly associated with SRT (r = –.220, p < .05). Forehand strike (β = -.53) emerged as a significant predictor for CRT (R2= .31, p < .05). Both forehand strike (β = –.78) and overhand throw (β = .40) significantly predicted SMT (R2 = .48,p < .01).
Conclusions: Over 75% of children did not reach the age-gender specified FMS proficiency level. During early school years, it is urgent to provide more practice opportunities in both school and home settings. The observed gender disparities in reaction time raises concern for earlier assessment during early childhood. Unilateral and bimanual coordination skills showed to be influential in psychomotor development. From a neurological development perspective, high-level interactions within the motor cortex are needed for complex skills requiring unilateral or bimanual coordination. If practicing these skills are prioritized during early childhood, long-term improvements in brain development should be observed.
Examining Family Influences on Preschoolers’ Motor Development: A Mixed-Methods Approach
Joonyoung Lee1, Jackson State University; Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Family dynamics (e.g., role modeling, parent/sibling support, home atmosphere) can greatly influence a child’s health behaviors. Underserved preschoolers from low-income families often have fewer opportunities to develop fundamental motor skills (FMS) and may exhibit less engagement in physical activity (PA). However, previous studies have reported inconsistent results, with some studies finding no differences in FMS development regardless of the family’s socioeconomic status (SES). Thus, this study aimed to utilizes a mixed-methods approach to explore how family dynamics can potentially influence FMS and PA behaviors in underserved preschoolers in Head Start programs, despite the challenges posed by low SES.
Method: Employing an explanatory sequential mixed methodology (Creswell & Clark, 2017), this study evaluated the FMS and PA patterns of 216 preschoolers (Mage = 4.32 ± 0.63; 56.5% girls) from the Head Start programs in the southwestern United States. To assess FMS and PA, the Test of Gross Motor Development–3rd edition (TGMD-3; Ulrich 2019) and accelerometers were utilized. We divided our purposeful and stratified sample (N = 20, final sample = 8) into two interview groups, those with high FMS and those with low FMS. Independent samples t-tests were used for comparison in the quantitative phase. After the quantitative analysis, we transitioned to the qualitative phase of the study, involving eight parent-child dyads who represented the extremes of FMS development, both highest and lowest. Through interviews and drawing methods, we delved deeper into the influence of family dynamics on a child’s FMS and PA behaviors.
Analysis/Results: The results showed that preschoolers in the high FMS group participated more moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (PA) than their counterparts in the low FMS group (ps < 0.05–0.001). By contrasting the quantitative findings with qualitative data from parent-child dyad interviews, we investigated the proposed mechanism underscoring the importance of family influence on underserved preschoolers’ FMS and PA behavior. The qualitative analysis of the interview data yielded four themes: (a) The PA habits of parents or siblings can shape children’s motor development and PA habits; (b) Parents’ efforts can foster the development of their children’s FMS; (c) The home environment enhances children’s opportunities to master FMS; and (d) Children’s motor development and parental support affect each other bidirectionally.
Conclusions: In line with the purpose of the sequential explanatory design in this study, we integrated parents’ responses from the qualitative findings with the quantitative results. This integration helped us explain and interpret the potential mechanisms determining family influences on the FMS development and PA behavior of underserved preschoolers in Head Start. The findings revealed that positive family environments—featuring role modeling, support, and facilitation—were more prevalent among preschoolers in the high FMS group than in the low FMS group. An analysis of the children’s drawings also revealed distinctions in images related to playing sports with parents or siblings, depending on the child’s level of FMS development. This study underscores the need for comprehensive home PA interventions supporting FMS development in Head Start families, a strategy vital to addressing health disparities and promoting health equity for underserved preschoolers in Head Start.
Physical Activity & Health Promotion
The Villainous Vape: Youth E-Cigarette Education Provided Through Novel Comic-Book
Hannah Brown1, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: Youth curiosity and engagement in new products and trends has always played a massive cultural and societal role in the foundation of many young people’s interests. These trends and products often provide a sense of comfort and conformity for many young people. However, products like e-cigarettes or vapes have unfortunately become a popular trend among many young people and has led to a significant increase in dangerous health consequences among youth.
With this increase, it is critical to explore new and innovative ways to communicate about the dangers of e-cigarettes. By utilizing a more visual approach for youth education, such as a comic book, we can further understand how youth will engage with the comic, retain more information, and relate to characters in the story. By having a compelling story line, we can explore youth perceptions and ability to relate to the experiences of the story’s characters and find support through the lessons learned. By increasing the availability of e-cigarette education and by altering the method of delivery, we can expect to see a decrease in e-cigarette use among youth.
Method: University faculty and staff developed the ‘Villainous Vape’ by translating research on e-cigarette use among college students to a comic book. The process included translating interpretation of the study findings into a narrative that resonates with youth and young adults. A cross-sectional exploratory research design aims to determine general perceptions of the comic, visual appeal, overall themes identified after reading it, and suggestions to integrate into prevention curriculum. Data were collected through an online survey distributed in partnership with four after school programs, and through 60-minute focus groups conducted with a small subset of these youth.
Analysis/Results: A total of 83 students in 6th-12th participated in the online survey distributed with the after-school programs and focus groups. Nearly 100% of all students who read the comic book found it to be a great way to facilitate education about e-cigarette use. Over 60% of all students found themselves able to relate to one or more of the characters, and enjoy seeing the journey Dep, the comic-book’s main character, takes to quit nicotine. In addition, over 90% of respondents indicated that the comic book discouraged them from vaping.
Conclusions: Youth engagement and interest are imperative when exploring new forms of communication and education. Health topics, such as the dangers of e-cigarette use, require novel strategies to discourage youth from initiating and empower students to make informed decisions about their health. The ‘Villainous Vape’ provides engagement, relatability, visual appeal, and accessible education, and shows significant promise as a public health solution to youth e-cigarette use.
A Thematic Analysis of Qualitative Findings on Preschool Teachers’ Behavioral Intention to Facilitate Children’s Movement Within the Indoor Preschool Classroom
John P Rech1, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Priyanka Chaudhary, Danae Dinkel, University of Nebraska at Omaha
Background/Purpose: Teachers play an influential role in children’s health behaviors and there is evidence to support the need for children to be more physically active within preschool. Teachers should be intentional about promoting play types that are more active than inactive and integrating physical activity into students’ learning. Teachers’ behavior intention to facilitate physical activity within the indoor classroom may be influenced by their individual perspectives on physical activity but this has rarely been explored. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate preschool teachers’ perceptions of physical activity use and promotion to identify potential factors that may influence their behavioral intention to facilitate children’s physical activity within the indoor classroom.
Method: This study consisted of conducting semi-structured interviews with 25 preschool teachers throughout the state of Nebraska. A thematic analysis approach was used to reduce findings into themes and sub-themes. Validation of qualitative findings was conducted through peer debriefing, audit trail, and thick description.
Analysis/Results: Five themes related to preschool teachers’ perceptions and behavioral intention to use and promote physical activity within their classrooms emerged from their responses to interview questions. These themes were 1) defining physical activity, 2) social-emotional development, 3) teaching philosophy, 4) professional development, and 5) environmental barriers. Teachers mostly defined physical activity as high intensity movement performed during outdoor free play or physical education. They also identified physical activity being more beneficial to children’s social and emotional development rather than physical health or cognitive outcomes. Teachers viewed movement as more of component of their teaching philosophy rather than a requirement of the preschool centers. However, teachers voiced a need and interest for professional development on physical activity and physical education within preschool. Teachers mentioned concerns of movement inside the classroom due to limited space and safety.
Conclusions: Overall, the findings delineate factors that could be of focus for ongoing professional development and interventions to increase individual teachers’ behavioral intention to facilitate children’s physical activity. Topics of focus may include strategies to facilitate children’s movement during indoor free play and reducing sedentary time, an emphasis on social-emotional benefits to better appeal to teacher’s expected outcomes of physical activity, and increasing teachers’ self-efficacy to overcome barriers.
Accuracy of Steps Counts Measured by Two Popular Smartwatches
Joonkoo YunF1, East Carolina University; Xiaoxia Zhang, Centenary College of Louisiana; Hyokju Maeng, Eastern New Mexico University
Background/Purpose: The wearable technology market for monitoring physical activity (PA) has consistently grown over the last decades. Approximately 69% of adults have tracked at least one health indicator, including physical activity (Fox & Duggan, 2013). The introduction of smartwatches, such as Apple and Samsung watches, may influence the popularity of monitoring PA behavior. Examining the accuracy of these smartwatches is essential, as inaccuracy may undermine consumer trust and reduce motivation for PA participation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the accuracy of step counts in two popular smartwatches under various walking conditions.
Method: Forty participants (8 males and 32 females) aged 18 to 59 years (mean = 25.88, SD = 10.45), walked on a predetermined indoor figure-8 course twice for three minutes each time, at self-paced, slow, and fast speeds, respectively. Slow speed was defined as 25% below the self-paced speed, and fast speed was defined as 25% above the self-paced speed. Participants wore an Apple Watch Series 5 and a Samsung Galaxy Watch Active 2 on the participant’s wrist of non-dominant hands. The percentage of absolute errors was calculated for both the Apple and Samsung Galaxy Watches, based on the number of steps measured by the smartwatches and the number of steps manually counted by the researchers in each trial. The average absolute error with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated. Additionally, two separate 2 x 3 (trial by speed) repeated ANOVAs for each smartwatch were conducted.
Analysis/Results: The Apple Watch had an average error rate of 9.53%, with a 95% CI, 7.56% to 11.51%. The percentage of errors for self-paced, slow, and fast speeds were 8.66%, 10.59%, and 9.35%, respectively. The results revealed no significant differences between various speeds in Apple Watch. The Samsung Galaxy Watch had an average error rate of 6.49%, with a 95% CI, 4.56% to 7.63%. The percentage of errors for self-paced, slow, and fast speeds were 3.34%, 11.11%, and 3.83%, respectively. The results revealed a significant main effect on speed, F(2, 78) = 13.72, p < .01, η2 = .26. Post-hoc analysis suggested that the Samsung Galaxy Watch had more errors at slow speed than in the two other conditions.
Conclusions: This study found that, on average, both Samsung Galaxy and Apple watches had errors within 10% when measuring steps. Although there is no universally agreed-upon cut-off for the percentage of errors that should be associated with step counts, less than 10% appears to be a reasonable margin of error. However, the study also suggests the need to improve step detection at slow speeds for the Samsung Galaxy Watch. The difficulty in accurately detecting slow-speed steps may be due to the mechanical placement of the accelerometer in the watch or the threshold of software recognizing acceleration of body movement as steps. Although the average absolute error rate of the Apple Watch is below 10% errors, the confidence interval for all three speeds crosses the 10% error margin. Manufacturers may need to put efforts into improving overall accuracy.
Association of Older Women’s Physical Activity and Quality of Life
Nicolas S. Lourenço, Universidade Paulista – UNIP; Pedro Pugliesi Abdalla, University of São Paulo; Anderson dos Santos Carvalho, Universidade Paulista – UNIP; Nilo C. Ramos1, Coastal Carolina University; Guanis B. Vilela Jr., Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba - UNIMEP
Background/Purpose: The aging process occurs naturally from birth and can be accelerated or slowed down as a result of factors related to the individual’s quality of life (QoL; Vilela Jr. et al., 2022). As people get older, declines in physical and functional capacities (e.g., strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity) and the effect of chronic diseases (e.g., cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes) can be observed, as well as higher incidence of sedentary habits (Silva et al., 2019). These factors may directly impact people’s QoL. One way to minimize these factors is by increasing physical activity (PA), which promotes healthy behaviors and execution of daily activities, and as a result, the improvement of QoL (Costa et al., 2018). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify and compare the perception of QoL of physically active and sedentary older women.
Method: Participants were 71 older women (age=68.6 ± 5.8 years) divided into two groups: physically active (GFA; n = 36) at least in the last 6 months; and sedentary with no PA (GSE; n = 35). Anthropometric variables of weight and height, BMI and calf circumference were recorded. Participants completed the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), and the WHOQOL-bref QoL questionnaires. The Timed Up and Go (TUG) and the chair stand-up and sit-down tests were applied. Descriptive analysis (minimum/maximum values, mean and standard deviation) was performed to compare data between groups. Normality was verified using the Komolgorov-Smirnov test. To compare GFA with GSE, the independent t test was used for variables with parametric distribution and the Mann-Whitney U test for variables with non-parametric distribution, with a previously established level of statistical significance (p<0.05); using SPSS 20.0 software.
Analysis/Results: There were no significant statistical differences between the GFA and GSE groups for the variables of age, weight, height, BMI and MMSE. However, the GFA presented a shorter time in the TUG (8.35 vs 10.64 s) and in the chair stand-up test (12.42 vs 16.66 s). The GFA showed higher averages for walking (235.4 vs 140.6 min/week), moderate physical activity (MFA; 816.1 vs 431.8 min/week), vigorous physical activity (VPA; 146.2 vs 53.1 min/week) and for moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; 962.3 vs 602.9 min/week). For the sedentary time variable, the GSE had the highest average (2150.8 vs 1561.6 min/week). The GFA obtained higher averages for all WHOQOL-bref domains (Physical: 78.87 vs 67.65; Psychological: 79.40 vs 66.90; Social Relationships: 79.63 vs 69.29; Environment: 75.26 vs 63.93).
Conclusions: The findings from this study demonstrated that older women who engage in PA regularly performed better in the TUG and chair stand-up and sit-down tests, suggesting that they are more physically able to perform daily activities. In addition, these women differed considerably in all domains of the WHOQOL-bref, indicating a better perception of quality of life. These findings suggest that older women who engage in PA perceive QoL more positively, and as a result, may live healthier lives. Consequently, it is imperative to stimulate older women to stay physically active.
College Student Knowledge and Willingness to Help During an Active Shooter Scenario
Michael Sandlin1, Texas A&M University; Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University; Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: In recent years, over 180 active shooter incidents have occurred across 44 states which resulted in 586 deaths and 657 wounded. Active shooter events occurred most frequently in areas of business (42%) followed by educational environments (34%). A recent study found that many college students (65%) say school shootings impact their sense of safety on campus. Given these statistics, this study analyzed the knowledge, preparedness, and willingness to help others during an active shooter scenario (AsS) among college students.
Method: Participants were primarily female (54%), Caucasian (62%), and upper classman (66%) at a southwest US university. Subjects ranged in age from 18-34 and came from a cross-section of ethnicities, majors, and involvement in student activities. Each (n=429) completed the 32-item survey related to the purpose of the study. In addition to providing demographic information, participants answered 10 graded knowledge-based active shooter scenario questions (higher scores indicated more knowledge and lower scores indicated less knowledge).
Analysis/Results: The overall average active shooter scenario knowledge score was 7.32 (S=1.37) indicating a moderately high level of knowledge about what to do if confronted by an active shooter. Specifically, the majority (96%) knew that when police arrive, one should keep hands visible and avoid shouting and pointing. They also knew (95%) what to do if barricaded in a room and that one should not restrict options for movement (93%). Lastly, students recognized that in an AsS, one should run if there is an escape path but not take time to take personal belongings (88%).
An independent t-test was used to determine significant differences in knowledge based on gender. Males (M = 7.87) had significantly higher AsS knowledge compared to females (M = 6.56), t(425) = 5.72, p = .000. Additionally, students who were involved in one or more student organizations (M = 7.56) had a higher level of AsS knowledge compared to those not involved in any student organizations (M = 7.04), t(425) = 3.19, p = .001.
With regard to preparedness for an AsS, the majority (96%) feel it is important to be prepared for an active shooter event and 88% had thought about what their response would be in an AsS. A high percentage (70%) make a point to familiarize themselves with emergency exits in places such as classrooms. Of interest, 88% state it is a personal choice for one to save the life of others in an AsS. Willingness to help was directly associated with having the specific skills to help; more specifically, perform rescue breathing (r = .35), perform CPR (r = .41), and control bleeding (r = .34).
Conclusions: Overall, the knowledge, preparedness, and willingness to help others in an AsS emergency among participants was high. The results provide opportunities for universities to implement and include conducting yearly hands-on AsA trainings, developing and displaying location-specific emergency action plans, sponsoring mock drills in student organizations and departments, offering multi-lingual programs reflective of stakeholders, and considering handgun training and campus-carry options for their campus. Specific attention to female students is warranted and can be achieved through sorority activities, high female enrollment programs (nursing and education), faith-based student organizations, and peer mentors/educator programs.
College Student Naloxone Knowledge and Training: We Can Do More!
Judy R. Sandlin1, Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University; Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University
Background/Purpose: Opiate use among college students is an increasing and dangerous health problem. Many college students report personal knowledge of peers who have used opioids recreationally. Research shows that naloxone training is an effective approach to combating the opioid overdose crisis and can be employed in a variety of populations including among college students. The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge about naloxone, naloxone training, and willingness to administer naloxone among college students.
Method: Participants were 394 college students attending a large four-year state university in the southwest. The sample was equally divided between males (45%) and females (55%). The average age of the participants was 21.96 years (SD =.98) and the group came from a cross-section of ethnicities, majors, and involvement in student activities. Subjects responded to a 28-item survey associated with the purpose of the study. In addition to providing demographic information, participants answered 10 graded opiate/naloxone knowledge-based questions (higher scores indicated more knowledge and lower scores indicated less knowledge).
Analysis/Results: Overall, the participants exhibited a moderate level of opiate/naloxone knowledge (M=6.03/10, S=1.18) and, sadly, only 7% of the participants had been trained to administer naloxone. There was no difference in opiate/naloxone knowledge based on whether one had been trained to administer naloxone. The majority of students (77%) reported that they would administer naloxone if they were trained. An independent t-test revealed that students who would be willing to administer naloxone had significantly more opiate/naloxone knowledge (M=6.18) compared to those not willing to administer naloxone (M=5.76), t(367)=3.21, p=.045.
Several key questions were frequently missed demonstrating a critical lack of knowledge on some opiate/naloxone constructs. The most frequently missed question was related to what drugs are considered opiates. Only 10% of the participants correctly identified all opioids in a list of possible drugs in this category. Additionally, only 10% of participants knew that naloxone can be given when one suspects (rather than explicitly knowing) an opioid overdose.
Participants did not know that naloxone will have no effect on an individual if opiates are not present in their system (76% answered incorrectly) and that only trained police and EMS personnel could administer naloxone (63% answered incorrectly). This is a critical misconception as students did not recognize their unique position as potential first responders in opiate overdose emergencies.
On a positive note, participants (94%) recognized the signs and symptoms of an opioid overdose, are aware (93%) that synthetic opioids are now the most common drugs involved in drug overdose deaths, and identified (89%) procedures necessary after administering naloxone.
Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the need for a comprehensive opioid and overdose awareness program for college students. The content of the skills-based program would include the characteristics and classifications of drugs, symptoms of opioid/drug overdose, administration of naloxone, and follow-up care for victims. This life-saving information could be included in biology and health/safety courses, student orientations for incoming students, and as an educational module in alcohol and drug awareness programs sponsored by universities.
Determinants of College Students’ Social Physique Anxiety
Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas at San Antonio; Ping XiangF1, Texas A&M University; William M. Land, Alberto Cordova, University of Texas at San Antonio
Background/Purpose: Social physique anxiety (SPA) refers to an individual’s fear of receiving unfavorable evaluations from others in relation to their physical appearance (Hart et al.,1989). Given the important role of SPA in shaping individuals’ willingness to participate in exercise and mitigating the adverse effects on physical and mental well-being, it is essential for researchers to identify a valid SPA scale and delve into the underlying determinants of SPA. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to employ a two-factor Social Physique Anxiety in Physical Activity Scale (SPAS-PA) to examine how gender, age, Body Mass Index (BMI), Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA), and perceived stress collectively influence college students’ SPA levels. The two factors were termed Negative Physique Expectation (NPE) and Positive Physique Presentation (PPP).
Method: Participants were 653 college students (323 male, 330 female) aged from 18 to 54 years (Mean age = 21.03, SD = 3.79). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were employed to examine the construct validity and internal consistency of the two-factor SPAS-PA. A Multiple Indicators, Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model was employed to investigate the association between college students’ SPA levels and five covariates: gender, age, perceived stress, BMI, and MVPA.
Analysis/Results: The CFA showed that the two-factor SPAS-PA model had an acceptable fit with the data (χ2 = 245.38, p < .001; CFI = .95; GFI = .94; RMSEA = .07). Reliability was good, with PPP (α = .81) and NPE (α = .89) factors. The MIMIC model revealed that perceived stress (PPP: β = .39, p < .001; NPE: β = .41, p < .001), gender (PPP: β = .19, p < .001; NPE: β = .33, p < .001), and MVPA (PPP: β = -.19, p < .001; NPE: β = -.13, p < .001) exerted significant influences on SPA scores, while age did not show a significant impact on either factor (PPP: β = -.03, p =.484; NPE: β = -.06, p = .103). Additionally, students with normal BMI values had significantly lower SPA scores on both NPE and PPP factors compared to those with overweight (PPP: β = .13, p < .001; NPE: β = .14, p < .001) and obesity values (PPP: β = .27, p < .001; NPE: β = .20, p < .001). Furthermore, students with normal BMI values reported significantly lower SPA scores on the PPP factor (β = .07, p < .05), but not on the NPE factor (β = .04, p = .205). Finally, the MIMIC model explained 39% of the variance in the NPE factor and 33% of the variance in the PPP factor.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that addressing stress management, considering gender differences, promoting healthy BMI values, and encouraging regular MVPA may be beneficial in reducing SPA among college students. Based on these findings, future research should expand the current MIMIC model and further explore the nomological network of SPA within the two-factor SPAS-PA model to gain deeper insights into this area of study.
Development of the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Technology Practice Questionnaire (CSPAP-TPQ)
Taemin Ha1, Queens College, City University of New York; Brian D. DauenhauerF, Jennifer M. Krause, Jaimie McMullenF, Matthew Farber, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: A large body of research shows that physical activity can benefit the health, well-being, and academic performance of school-aged children and adolescents. There are various technologies available that can be used to better facilitate and promote physical activity within a K-12 school community. To investigate the current practice of technology use for physical activity promotion among various school stakeholders, this study aimed to develop a valid and reliable questionnaire titled the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Technology Practice Questionnaire (CSPAP-TPQ).
Method: Two rounds of the Delphi method (n = 24 experts) were employed to determine the content validity of questionnaire items. Reliability was established using the test-retest method among 43 registered Active Schools Champions who are members of the national organization Active Schools, which aims to encourage an active school culture across the country.
Analysis/Results: Qualitative data (i.e., experts’ comments and suggestions) were coded, organized, and reported to draw connections between experts’ comments and suggestions for both rounds of expert review. The data highlighted four concepts: (a) revising definitions of CPSAP components (e.g., CSPAP definitions were directly quoted from CDC [2013]), (b) rewording several questions (e.g., the language “racial identification” was changed to “race” in a respondent demographic section), (c) condensing overlapping technologies (e.g., speaker, audio cassette, compact disc (CD), and MP3 player were condensed as one item “Audio System.”), and (d) adding technology experiences questions (e.g., earning of a technology-related professional development certificate). Quantitative data (i.e., Likert scale items) for both rounds were analyzed through measures of central tendency and dispersion to identify whether each technology was considered relevant for each component of the CSPAP framework. There was greater than 80% agreement (“agree” or “strongly agree”) among experts on the relevance of items in all six sections. Test-retest percent agreement among Champion responders and chi-square tests were used to measure the reliability of the CSPAP-TPQ. Among all 89 technology items, 85 showed “good to excellent” agreement (≥ 75%), while four technology items (i.e., digital video camcorder in physical education and tablet, quick response [QR] code, and online video recording/creating/sharing platforms in staff involvement and family and community engagement) showed “moderate” agreement (60-74%; Saelens et al., 2006). Results of the chi-square test for all six sections showed significant X2 associations with a value of p < .001.
Conclusions: Expert consensus, percent agreement, and chi-square analyses suggest that the CSPAP-TPQ is a valid and reliable tool for examining technology use in school-based physical activity promotion. The tool can be confidently used by researchers to describe current technology use in schools, identify areas for intervention, or track the impact of interventions over time.
Effects of Peer-supported and Self-guided Exercise on Anxiety and Depression among Young Adults
Xihe ZhuF, Michael D. Kostick1, Justin A. HaegeleF, Old Dominion University
Background/Purpose: While physical activity engagement can help to reduce rates of anxiety and depression among young adults, physical activity levels among this population have decreased, most notably during the COVID-19 pandemic (Puccinelli et al., 2021). As such, there is a clear and urgent need to identify mechanisms to promote physical activity, and therefore reduce anxiety and depression rates, among this population. Given that peer-supported exercise programs may simultaneously enhance physical activity engagement while also providing mental health-related benefits, in this study, we evaluated the mental health benefits of a peer-supported exercise intervention for young adults. Peer support can not only serve as a referral source but has been shown to be an effective tool to reduce depressive symptoms among young adults such as college students.
The main purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a peer-supported exercise intervention on young adults (vs. self-guided exercise) who had elevated levels of anxiety and/or depression. These young adults were screened with mild or moderate anxiety or depression but were not clinically diagnosed with severe disorders concurrently receiving psychotherapy or antidepressants for treatment. The secondary purpose of the study was to examine the decay of intervention impact through a post-intervention follow-up, a practice that has been sparsely reported in the literature.
Method: A parallel group design was used where young adults (n = 27) were randomly assigned to either peer-supported or self-guided exercise group which lasted for eight weeks. The generalized anxiety and depression subscales of the Counseling Center Assessment of Psychological Symptoms (CCAPS-34) were measured at 4-week, 8-week, and 12-week follow-up.
Analysis/Results: We conducted descriptive statistics and inferential statistical analyses. Specifically, we ran frequency analysis on participant demographic variables such as gender and ethnicity and computed the mean and standard deviations of the participant age. To examine the depression and generalized anxiety changes for peer-supported and self-guided exercise groups, we ran analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) with repetitive measures where the baseline, 4-week, 8-week, and 12-week follow-up scores were recorded. ANCOVA-RM show that peer-supported and self-guided exercise programs reduced participant anxiety ((F = 3.23, Pillai’s λ = .39, η = .12, p = .03) and depression (F = 3.91, Pillai’s λ = .27, p = .98, η = .14, p = .01) scores, however, intervention decay for those within the peer-supported exercise intervention (Δ = .78) was worse than those in the self-guided group (Δ = 1.45).
Conclusions: Our data showed that the peer-supported exercise intervention had a positive effect on anxiety and depression symptoms. However, these effects were like those experienced by participants in a self-guided exercise group. Additionally, the intervention decay for those within the peer-supported exercise intervention was greater than those in the self-guided group. While our study supports the positive effects of exercise interventions in reducing mental health issues, they do not support peer-supported supremacy over those that are self-guided.
Effects of Smart Bottles on Water Consumption and Health Status
Farrah Castleman1, YuChun Chen, Western Kentucky University
Background/Purpose: There are many benefits of hydration: regulating body temperature, protecting sensitive tissues, helping remove body waste, and keeping the brain function optimally. Despite the health benefits, most people do not consume the recommended amount of water daily. Previous research has tested different interventions to increase water consumption using educational/behavioral strategies and/or legislative/environmental prompts and found that interventions with a combination of the two components produced the best results. With the invention of smart devices and how it has increased convenience and productivity, this research aimed to examine the effects of smart bottles on college students’ water consumption and health status. Specific hypotheses included: (1) the group with smart bottles will consume significantly more amount of water, (2) the group with smart bottles will display healthier markers, and (3) the amount of water intake will be a significant predictor of health status regardless of the bottles.
Method: Participants included 42 students enrolled in a walking class at a regional university; they underwent the same class activities delivered by the same instructor. Twenty-five participants in the first bi-term self-reported their daily water intake for 35 days on Blackboard. Seventeen participants in the second bi-term were given smart bottles, which tracked their water consumption and reminded them to drink throughout the day. Their water intake was collected through an app on their smart phones that synced with the bottles. The app administrator (first presenter) recorded their daily water intake for 35 days. At the end of each bi-term section, participants had five weekdays to deposit a urine sample at a local health center.
Analysis/Results: Means and standard deviations of weekly and overall water intake were calculated. Data normality was confirmed and the assumption of homogeneity of variance was also met. An independent-samples t test was calculated comparing the average weekly and overall water intake between the first and second bi-terms. No significant difference was found, indicating that the bottle’s smart features did not prompt or motivate those in the second bi-term to drink more water. All dipstick urinalysis items except for the urine color and transparency were treated as dichotomous variables for the negative/normal and the positive/abnormal test results. Frequencies and percentages were calculated for all urinalysis items, and findings revealed that participants with smart bottles were slightly less healthy than their peers without the bottles. Binary logistic regression was conducted to predict health status based on overall water intake. The regression equation was not significant in any of the dipstick urinalysis items calculated, suggesting the amount of water they had consumed for 35 days did not make them healthier or less healthy.
Conclusions: In this research, smart bottles were not an impactful tool for college students to drink more water and consequently display healthier markers in the urinalysis test results. Data from both groups also did not show a positive association between water consumption and health status. A plausible explanation of contradicting results to the hypotheses can be caused by the small sample size. A few directions for future research are discussed.
Engaging Families in School Physical Activity: Strategies, Barriers, and Facilitators
Veronica Becerra1, Jennifer M. Krause, Brian D. DauenhauerF, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: Families and schools are the primary sources of influence for modeling physical activity (PA) and health behaviors (Carson et al., 2014; Erwin et al., 2013; McEvoy et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2021) and must work together whenever possible. Family engagement in relation to PA in schools is defined as families and school staff working together to increase PA opportunities before, during, and after the school day (CDC, 2019). Unfortunately, there is insufficient research on effective strategies on how to best engage families in PA promotion (Brown et al., 2016). Therefore, this study aimed to investigate how K-12 schools promote and engage families in PA.
Method: School professionals (17 PE/Health teachers, 4 other educators; 10 elementary, 6 secondary, 5 K-12 combined) who were members of a state SHAPE organization in the mountain west completed an online survey on strategies for family engagement in PA . Participants indicated the extent to which their schools implemented a list of 12 identified strategies to promote PA among families in the previous year and if they planned to implement them in the upcoming year, in addition to identifying barriers and facilitators for family engagement. Twelve participants indicated a 51% or higher student population that received free and reduced lunch, and 12 participants indicated a minority population of 51% or higher.
Analysis/Results: Data were screened for accuracy and missing values prior to analysis. Frequencies were calculated for (a) total number of schools that implemented each strategy, (b) number of schools that indicated each barrier listed, and (c) number of schools that indicated each facilitator listed. Additionally, frequency counts were used to describe the extent of implementation for each strategy (i.e., “did not implement at all” to “implemented daily”). Of the strategies for engaging families in school PA, “inviting families to participate in field day/fitness day during the school day” (n=15), “providing opportunities for families to volunteer in PE or other physical activity” (n=12), and “shared information about physical activity programs or activities available in the community” (n=11) were implemented most frequently. On average, these strategies were implemented once per year to once per semester. The most frequently reported barriers were time constraints (n=18), competing demands (n=15), and transportation challenges (n=8). The most frequently reported facilitators were a welcoming and inclusive school environment (n=13), information being communicated in the home or preferred language (n=8), and a school culture that valued physical activity (n=8).
Conclusions: While the literature, including position statements and national guidance documents, highlights the importance of engaging families in physical activity promotion, the extent to which schools actually engage families and the strategies employed is not well documented. This study provides preliminary insights into the strategies that K-12 schools in one state are using to engage families, along with common barriers and facilitators. Follow-up studies are needed to determine if these strategies vary by school type, geographical region, or student demographics. Results have implications for future interventions and teacher professional development around family engagement for physical activity promotion.
Evaluating a Middle School Cycling Education Program Using the RE-AIM Framework
Esther Walker1, Outride
Background/Purpose: Regular bicycling can support health and mental wellbeing, while also serving as an environmentally friendly tool for mobility. Increasing access to cycling education for youth is one way to support long-term adoption of cycling as a mode of active travel and for increasing population physical activity. However, cycling rates among youth continue to drop, and cycling education is often not part of standard school curriculum in the United States. Including systematic and comprehensive cycling education as part of the school day is one way to increase exposure to safe cycling skills while reducing disparities in access to equipment, programming, and safe places to ride. In this study, we use the RE-AIM framework to evaluate a middle school youth cycling education program and to identify opportunities to improve the program.
Method: The RE-AIM framework was employed to evaluate each dimension of a middle school cycling education program that is designed to be implemented as a 12-module physical education unit during the school day over a period of 6 weeks. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, using a combination of student pre and post program surveys, teacher surveys, a historical program survey, and administrative program data from over 60 schools.
Analysis/Results: A summary of key findings for each of the RE-AIM dimensions is listed below.
Reach: The program introduced over 50,000 students to the fundamentals of cycling across the United States and Canada, with participant demographics closely mirroring the US youth population. Effectiveness: Students reported high levels of engagement and enjoyment, as well as increased confidence in cycling skills and mental wellbeing after participating in the program. Self-reported helmet use also increased after participating in the program. Adoption: Program adoption levels were high, but there was a small subset of schools were unable to implement in their initial year of the program, often due to lack of administrative support or staff turnover. Implementation: There were high levels of implementation fidelity across schools, but several modifications were reported to adapt to the unique needs of their students and school. Maintenance: Organizationally, there was strong maintenance of programs year over year, but staff turnover and challenges with COVID-19 contributed to dropout. Of the schools that had dropped out, many expressed interest in learning about resources to support revitalizing the program. Other schools have continued to expand the program year over year, involving the wider community, and have provided increased opportunities for students to engage in cycling both during and after the school day. Capturing long-term maintenance at the student level was more challenging and is an area for improvement. Differences in program outcomes across geographic regions, demographics, and other factors will also be discussed.
Conclusions: Understanding what factors contribute to successful cycling education programs across the country is important if we want to improve rates of youth participating in active travel and physical activity. Recommendations will be provided to improve equitable uptake of cycling education programs at schools based on variations in built environment, geography, and available resources.
Evaluation of a CSPAP Partnership: All Stars Moving Together
Staci Rae Drewson1, Jennifer McGovern, Andrea Hope, Shannon Clifford, Monmouth University
Background/Purpose: The comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) is a school-based, multicomponent approach endorsed by the CDC (2013) and SHAPE America (2015) as a national framework for achieving the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2018) recommendations for at least 60 min of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). School-university partnerships are an effective approach to creating, implementing, and sustaining an effective CSPAP collaborative and pair well with courses taught by health and physical education teacher education (HPETE) faculty (Castelli et al., 2022; Drewson & Lackman, 2020). In CSPAP partnerships, developmentally appropriate PA opportunities are standards-based according to grade level outcomes (SHAPE America, 2014, 2015) and align with the Healthy Eating and Physical Activity (HEPA) Standards in Out-of-School Time Programs (Wiecha et al., 2011). According to the HEPA Standards, PA programming should provide 30 min of PA with at least 50% in MVPA zones. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of the All Stars Moving Together (ASMT) CSPAP partnership. The ASMT initiative represents a school-university partnership between a HPETE program and an elementary school with a joint aim of helping children achieve 30 min of the daily recommended 60 min of MVPA using elements of the CSPAP framework.
Method: The ASMT is a fieldwork extension of a HPETE course (Drewson & Lackman, 2020) implemented during 5 distinct fall semesters and 1 spring semester over the span of 6 years (2017-2022). The ASMT weekly schedule (Mon/Thurs; Tues/Thurs) and duration of the program (6 to 8 weeks) varied across semesters as contextually relevant to scheduling (Castelli et al., 2022). PA sessions were provided twice a week as either a drop-in lesson during the school day or an enrichment program after the school day. Each 60 min PA session consisted of a 15 min fitness experience, several 10-15 min physical activity stations, a 10 min group game, and a 5 min closure. Undergraduate students, enrolled in the HPETE course, designed and facilitated PA lesson plans under a HPETE professor’s supervision. PA lesson plans included aerobic, muscle-strengthening, and bone strengthening activities (USDHHS, 2018), adhered to national standards (SHAPE America, 2014), and reflected PA engagement strategies (Weaver et al., 2013; Wiecha et al., 2011). ASMT participants included 91 children from 6 unique cohorts recruited from the 4th or 5th grades of a parochial school with 93% free/reduced lunch and 84% English as a second language. Children wore ActiGraph wGT3x-BT accelerometers to measure time spent in MVPA during the ASMT sessions.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics indicate ASMT participants averaged more than 30 min of MVPA during each PA session across the six semesters of implementation. The group average ranged from 36.6 min (Spring 2018) to 46.7 min (Fall 2022).
Conclusions: The results support the effectiveness of utilizing school-university CSPAP partnerships to increase MVPA for children. The CSPAP framework provides flexibility to foster a sustainable school-university partnership. The ASMT initiative represents an effective model for leveraging during school PA drop-ins and afterschool PA enrichment opportunities to help children achieve MVPA recommendations.
Examining Gender, Age, and Ethnicity Differences in Perceived Motor Competence
Dimetrius Brandon1, University of Tennessee Knoxville; Jacqueline D. GoodwayF, The Ohio State University; Ali BrianF, David F. StoddenF, University of South Carolina; Larissa True, New Mexico State University; Rick Ferkel, Central Michigan University; Blaize Shiebler, University of Maryland
Background/Purpose: The Developmental Trajectory model by Stodden et al. (2008) highlights that perceived motor competence (PMC) is an important variable that mediates the relationship between Actual Motor Competence (AMC) and Physical Activity. For this study, we used Harter’s developmental view of PMC which refers to a child’s perception of her/his motor skill competence. In early and middle childhood, a child’s PMC is often unrealistically high and does not correlate with their AMC. Young children in Piaget’s pre-operations stage of cognitive development typically lack the cognitive capacity to accurately evaluate their fundamental motor skills. Thus, PMC is high regardless of AMC (Goodway & Rudisill, 1997). By later childhood children are shifting into Piaget’s concrete operations stage of cognitive development and become more accurate in their PMC (Goodway & Rudisill, 1997). What is not clear from the literature is the differences in PMC among age groups, ethnicities, and gender. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine PMC differences between age groups, ethnicity/race, and gender among children 4-11 years old.
Method: A total of 410 participants (201 boys) across early childhood (EC; 4-5 yrs, n = 139), middle childhood (MC; 7-8 yrs, n = 132), and later childhood (LC; 10-11 yrs, n = 139) participated in this study. Three categories of ethnicity (White, n=138; Hispanic, n = 132; Black, n = 140) were included. PMC was measured through the pictorial physical competence subscale or the athletic competence subscale depending on age (Harter & Pike, 1984, or Harter 1982).
Analysis/Results: A 3Age X 2Gender X 3Ethnicity/Race ANOVA was performed to compare differences in PMC. The ANOVA revealed significant main effects in PMC for Age groups (p < .01) and Ethnicity/race (p = .02), but no significant differences in Gender (p = .91). A Bonferroni post-hoc on Age groups found significant differences in PMC between EC and LC (p < .01) and significant differences between MC and LC (p < .01) but not between EC and MC (p = .08). Children in LC were had the lowest PMC. A separate Bonferroni post-hoc on Ethnicity/race revealed significant differences in PMC between White and Hispanic (p = .05), White and Black (p= .01), but no differences between Black and Hispanic (p= 1.0). There were no significant interaction effects.
Conclusions: It is of concern that PMC decreases with age as PMC is critical to sustaining physical activity behaviors over childhood and adolescence. Further research needs to investigate how to support children’s PMC as they transition from elementary to middle school. Further research also needs to examine why White children had the lowest PMC of all groups. These findings have implications to instructing children in physical education and sport settings.
Exploring Physical Activity’s Role in Adolescent Psychological Well-Being
Suryeon Ryu1, University of Minnesota – Twin Cities; Zan GaoF, University of Tennessee
Background/Purpose: During and especially after the COVID-19 pandemic, the mental health crisis has emerged as a major public health concern worldwide, intricately linked to an individual’s physical health. Physical activity (PA) has evolved as a cost-effective, non-pharmaceutical means to enhance not only physical health but also psychological well-being. Adolescence is a critical period during which individuals learn and experience healthy behaviors that can significantly shape adulthood lifestyles. This research examines the impact of participation in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) on young adolescents’ self-esteem and emotional health.
Method: In this secondary, cross-sectional analysis study, data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey 2018 (KCYPS 2018) were utilized. This publicly available and de-identified survey was conducted among 7th-grade students between July and November 2018. Multiple multivariable linear regression models were employed, using MVPA as the key predictor and the following as dependent variables: (1) self-esteem, (2) attention, (3) aggression, (4) psychosomatic symptoms, and (5) depression. The covariates included age, gender, body mass index, academic achievement levels, and household economic status. Possible interactions between MVPA (unexposed/exposed) and gender (boys/girls) were examined through 2-way interaction plots. All statistical analyses were conducted using R, with significance levels set at 0.05. After excluding missing responses, a total of 2462 adolescents (1334 boys) were included in the data analyses.
Analysis/Results: The results indicate that MVPA is positively associated with self-esteem (p < 0.01) and negatively associated with depression (p < 0.01). This suggests that adolescents participating in more MVPA have higher self-esteem and experience fewer depressive symptoms. However, no strong relationships were observed with other emotional health outcomes. The interaction plots revealed that outcome levels vary based on exposure to MVPA and gender. Although the interactions between MVPA and gender on outcomes were not consistently significant, the results significantly showed better self-esteem for exposed girls compared to unexposed girls. Both exposed boys and girls also significantly experienced less depression compared to their unexposed counterparts. For other outcomes, the most notable difference was between exposed boys and girls, with boys having significantly poorer attention and exposed girls experiencing more pronounced psychosomatic symptoms. No significant evidence was found for aggressive behavior.
Conclusions: In conclusion, this study emphasizes the potential role of MVPA in enhancing psychological well-being among young adolescents, particularly in improving self-esteem and reducing depressive symptoms. While the relationships between MVPA and some emotional health outcomes were complex and warrant further exploration, the demonstrated benefits of MVPA on self-esteem and depression contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting PA as an essential element of mental health intervention. These findings have substantial implications for health professionals, educators, and policymakers, urging them to consider integrating PA into mental health strategies and preventive measures for adolescents.
Exploring Recess in Middle School: A School Leadership Perspective
Edward B. Olsen1, Kean University; James D. Wyant, Emi TsudaF, West Virginia University; Kyoung Kim, Mia Weiser, Mohamed Omar, John Koch, Colin Embry, Joseph Di lusto, Kean University
Background/Purpose: There is limited empirical research on recess at the middle school level (Clevenger et al., 2023; Corzine, 2017; Jarret & Duckett Hedgebeth, 2003; Servidio, 2020). To promote the execution of recess at the middle school level, acquiring input from the central office, building administrators, and building personnel who are highly involved or peripherally involved in recess at the middle school level is critical (Corzine, 2017; Servidio, 2020). The purpose of this study was to explore school administrators’ perceptions and experiences in planning and implementing recess in New Jersey middle schools.
Method: This study utilized an explanatory sequential mixed methods research design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). This design has two phases: Phase one starts with a survey followed by phase two—interviews. The sampling technique used to recruit the participants was maximum variation (Tracy, 2020). The participants’ contact information was gathered from the New Jersey School Performance Report. A total of 172 and 19 school administrators participated in Phase 1 (survey) and Phase 2 (semi-structured interviews) of the study. The socio-ecological model on health behavior (Sallis et al., 2008) informed this study. Trustworthiness was achieved through intercoder reliability, triangulation, audit trail, member reflections, member checks, and field testing.
Analysis/Results: Phase one data (survey) were analyzed through descriptive statistics. Phase two data (interviews) were analyzed using a phronetic iterative approach (Tracy, 2019). Phase one results showed that in grades 6th-8th, recess is provided 4.5 days (SD = 1.37) and 21.2 minutes (SD = 3.0) per week. About 71% of the participants supported and 67% had the capability to offer recess. The participants rely on the following sources of information: professional experience (87%), personal experience (69%), and student comments. The major barriers were a limited number of hours in a school day (43%), scheduling conflicts (38%), and 35% of the participants indicated no barriers. The main facilitators were an emphasis on a “well-rounded” education (60%), adequate outdoor facilities (54%), and adequate personnel (49%). The top recommendations were professional development and online modules (65%), a recess plan and schedule (43%), and a recess committee (39%).
Phase 2 results represented four themes. The first theme, the importance and benefits of middle school recess, focused on the whole child, student wellness, academic and social benefits, and a break from the school day. The second theme, recess operation, addressed rules, policies, procedures, weather, supervision, schedule, facilities, equipment, and the teacher contract. Issues associated with middle school recess, the third theme, surrounded behavior problems; harassment, intimidation, and bullying; logistical and liability issues; limited socio-emotional skills; physical inactivity; weapons, racial discrimination, and aggression; and phones. The last theme, ways to improve middle school recess, were professional development; input from faculty, staff, and students; a recess committee; fundraisers for equipment, and laws.
Conclusions: There are several benefits to recess for all grade levels (K-12). Professional development; input from faculty, staff, and students; a recess committee; a recess plan and schedule; and fundraisers are critical to planning and implementing recess at the middle school level.
Exploring the Potential of Social Technologies and Social Psychology in Quest to Cultivate Physical Activity Habits
Willy Kipkemboi Rotich1, SUNY Brockport
Background/Purpose: This theoretical paper explores the persuasion potential of emerging [and evolving] social technologies as well as strategies that could be employed to parlay them to enhance physical activity (PA), exercise, and by extension how this promise could be leveraged to boost physical activity levels, enrich physical activity experiences and thus accentuate fitness and health. Given that today, public health officials and physical activity practitioners alike consider inactivity and sedentary lifestyles among large segments of the population to be a substantial contributing factor to the obesity epidemic, different ways of persuading the public to engage in more physical activity are warranted. Using Cialdini’s (1984) persuasion principle framework to illuminate this potential, the paper explores emerging technological phenomena that amplify these principles particularly commitment consistency, social and liking.
The need to explore the intersection between movement and technology is particularly attracted scholarly focus as highlighted in recent scholarship. The effect of technology on behavior including physical activity and exercise emerging as the center of this focus. Research conducted over the last two or so decades has demonstrated how new social practices evolve due to increased use of new digital technologies, especially among young people, Buckingham & Willet (2006). Despite earlier concerns that about digital technologies’ complicity in facilitating sedentary lifestyles, aspects of it are equally if not more beneficial in dissuading it as Gao & Lee (2019) note: emerging technology plays a complex role in sedentary behavior-much like a double-edged sword.
Method: In this analysis, specific social technologies platforms with pronounced social dimension that are amenable to physical activity and exercise for instance Facebook, apple watches, Striiv pedometers, Pokémon Go and technology related phenomena like flash mobs are explored.
Analysis/Results: The analysis seeks to demonstrate how each of these social technologies amplifies Cialdini’s principles of persuasion given that social technologies expand exponentially the capacity of people to interact.
Conclusions: Conceptually, emerging social technology provides a very promising strategy to promote movement on a larger scale as drastic interventions are needed to address today’s obesity crisis.
Health Risk Factor Trends among WV Children Across Seven Years
Eloise M. ElliottF1, Emi TsudaF, Christa Lilly, Kristin McCartney, Emily Murphy, Lee Pyles, Kaitlyn Shaffer, James D. Wyant, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: The Coronary Artery Risk Detection in Appalachian Communities (CARDIAC) Project began in West Virginia schools in 1998 to detect health risk factors in school-age children, and to report results to parents, healthcare providers, schools, and policy makers, thereby, affecting the management of children’s dietary intake, physical activity, and health care. The project also provides schools, students, and parents with evidence-informed interventional strategies to facilitate knowledge, positive attitudes, and desired behaviors related to physical activity and nutrition.
Method: The data from the WV CARDIAC Project’s cardiovascular risk factors screenings from 2016-2023 were used for this study. Kindergarten (n=15,713), 2nd grade (n=24,599), and 5th grade (n=18,253) students participated in school-based screenings in academic school years 2016-2017 [Year 1], 2018-2019 [Year 2], 2019-2020 [Year 3], 2021-2022 [Year 4], and 2022-2023 [Year 5]. Two academic school years no data was collected (2017-2018- lack of funding, and 2022-2021 -the COVID-19 Pandemic). The screening data include body mass index (BMI), acanthosis nigricans (AN), and blood pressure (collected only for 5th graders). Measured children’s height and weight were used to calculate their BMI and identify the percentile and weight status (under and normal weight= <85th, overweight= 85th-94th, and obese= ≥ 95th percentiles; CDC, 2023). The neck or axilla was screened to identify the presence of AN. Resting blood pressure was collected, and the results were adjusted for height, age, and gender. If the systolic and/or diastolic pressures were above 95th percentile, a child was recorded as at risk.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics showed that the percentage of overweight and obese children from Year 1 to 5 were rather consistent across the five years for all kindergarten (37.9%, 36.5%, 31.4%, 35.8%, and 32.1% [M = 34.7%]), 2nd (36.1%, 43.0%, 37.8%, 43.0%, and 39.9% [M = 40.1%]), and 5th grades (46.5%, 50.7%, 46.9%, 51.3%, and 50.1% [M = 49.1%]). These results also demonstrated the positive increasing trend in the percentage of overweight and obese children as they get older. The results of AN also illustrated a clear positive trend in the percentage of children who were identified as at risk from kindergarten to 5th grade from Year 1 to 5 (Kindergarten 0.6%, 2.6%, 3.8%, 4.3%, and 3.2% [M = 2.9%]; 2nd grade 1.3%, 6.3%, 5.2, 6.4%, 5.6% [M = 5.0%]; 5th grade 3.3%, 8.9%, 7.5%, 9.1%, and 8.0% [M = 7.4%]). The children who were identified as at risk in blood pressure among 5th graders were also rather consistent across the five years with Year 5 having higher results compared to the previous years (24.7%, 28.1%, 25.6%, 26.3%, and 33.7% [M = 27.7%]).
Conclusions: Although data from the last seven years of the CARDIAC Project have shown little change in BMI, AN, or BP across elementary school children in WV, the data is consistent with WV CARDIAC data from previous years that show obesity trends are not improving, but they are also not increasing. Schools need to take an active role in providing a Comprehensive Schools Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) for ALL children and increase the importance of School Wellness Teams in promoting the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child framework.
Impact of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior on Self-rated Health
Yahan Liang1 ([email protected]), Old Dominion University; Youzhi Ke, Shanghai University of Sport; Xihe ZhuF, Old Dominion University; Yang Liu, Shanghai University of Sport
Background/Purpose: Self-rated health (SRH) reflects an individual’s subjective perception of their overall health status and is an independent predictor of morbidity and mortality. It is a valuable indicator for understanding the overall health of children and adolescents. Physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior (SB) play crucial roles in the health of children and adolescents (World Health Organization, 2020). This study analyzed the separate and combined impacts of PA and SB on SRH among Chinese children and adolescents of different genders.
Method: A cross-sectional survey was conducted, and data on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), school-based PA, extracurricular physical activity (EPA), screen time (ST), homework time, and SRH were collected through a self-report questionnaire from a sample of 4,227 Chinese children and adolescents aged 13.04 ± 2.62 years. Descriptive analyses and chi-squared test were conducted. Binary logistic regression was used to compare gender differences in PA, SB, and SRH among children and adolescents, and analyses were adjusted for age and ethnicity. Analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS V.26, with a significance level of p < 0.05.
Analysis/Results: Boys had more MVPA (p < 0.001), school-based PA (p < 0.001), EPA (p < 0.001), SB (p = 0.005) on weekdays, ST (p < 0.001) on weekdays, and were more prone to report optimal SRH (p < 0.001) than girls. In addition, 12.04% of children and adolescents met the PA guidelines recommendations, and 39.44% met the SB guidelines recommendations. In separate effects, boys and girls engaging in ≥60 min/day of MVPA and >1 hour/day of EPA reported optimal SRH. Boys who participated in >1 hour/day of school-based PA were significantly more likely to have optimal SRH (OR= 1.49, 95%CI = 1.19-1.86). Additionally, boys with ≤ 2 hours/day of SB on weekends were significantly associated with optimal SRH (OR= 1.42, 95%CI= 1.02-1.99). Girls with ≤2 hours/day of SB on the whole week were significantly associated with optimal SRH (OR= 1.78, 95%CI = 1.19-2.68). Only girls who had ≤2 hours/day of ST were significantly associated with optimal SRH (weekdays: OR= 1.38, 95%CI = 1.10-1.74; weekends: OR= 1.40, 95%CI = 1.14-1.71; whole week: OR= 1.42, 95%CI = 1.16-1.73). In combination effects, regardless of SB recommendations, meeting PA guidelines were significantly associated with optimal SRH in both boys (meet PA and SB recommendations, OR= 1.61, 95%CI = 1.03-2.50; meet PA recommendations but not SB, OR = 2.40, 95%CI= 1.57-3.65) and girls (meet PA and SB recommendations, OR = 3.72, 95%CI = 2.08-6.65; meet PA recommendations but not SB, OR = 4.27, 95%CI = 2.09-8.75).
Conclusions: Increased PA and reduced SB were positively associated with optimal SRH in Chinese children and adolescents. Notably, lower ST positively influenced only girls’ SRH. Meeting PA guidelines is more impactful than meeting SB guidelines for improving SRH in Chinese children and adolescents. Future studies could explore these associations using objective measures of PA and SB in China.
Impacts of Move 60! Program and Participant Gender on Social Emotional Competency
Austin Kulp, Xihe ZhuF1, Old Dominion University
Background/Purpose: Social and emotional competency learning (SEL) is an integral part of education and human development. In the context of pandemic-induced lockdown, where some/all education programs were switched to virtual, SEL became critical for students, however, there is currently limited research on the type of program that can affect student SEL. The purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of an afterschool physical activity program Move 60! and participant gender on student SEL.
Method: Pre-post measures of SEL from the elementary students (n = 122) who participated in the online version of Move 60! that aimed to increase students’ participation for physical activity and sports outside of the school hours were collected. The participant mean age was 11.69 ±1.66 years old. About half (50.6%) of the participants were girls, and the sample included 11.4% Asian, 7.6% Black, 20.7% Latinos, 48.1% White, and 12.2% multiracial/native American and others at the schools. We collected student demographic variables and measured SEL using Washoe County School District (WCSD) Social and Emotional Competency Assessments – Short Form (SECAs; Crowder et al., 2019; Davidson et al., 2018).
Analysis/Results: We ran frequency analyses to show the percentage of students whose SEL has improved. Then, to examine to what extent the student SEL has changed from pre to post measures, a dependent sample t test was conducted. We ran a chi-squared test to examine the potential association between student gender and whether the composite scores were improved (i.e., ∆ > 0). Overall, student SEL was significantly improved from the pre to post measure, t = 2.57, df = 121, p = .01, d = .23. Girls (∆ = 2.34) had higher though not statistically significant improvement than boys (∆ = .73), t = 1.41, df = 120, p = .17. There was a significant association between participant gender and SEL score improvement, χ2 = 3.94, df = 1, p < .05.
Conclusions: Overall, students had a significant improvement in SEL scores from pre to post the Move 60! program. There was a higher percentage of girls who reported SEL improvement than boys. The average improvement in SEL score was higher for girls compared to boys, though not significantly. More studies are needed to further examine the extent of impact of physical activity program like Move 60! and the impact of participant gender on student SEL.
Investigation of SEL and Executive Function in High School PE
Brittany Russell Belcher1, Buchanan County Public Schools; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina – Greensboro
Background/Purpose: Physical education is required in most high schools; however, academic success is prioritized over student well-being. Even though most states require high school PE, the implementation at many schools is low-quality, and often students are forced to substitute PE for remedial academic coursework. Despite ample research that documents the positive impact physical activity has on executive function in older adults and elementary aged students, research is lacking for adolescents. In addition, SEL has been abundant at the elementary level, but not so much at the high school level. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of PE on SEL and executive function in high school students.
Method: A mixed methods approach was used. An interpretive qualitative research approach guided the pre and post focus groups that included questions about SEL self- competencies. Executive function was measured at three time points throughout the semester. Students completed a mobile flanker task on school iPads to measure executive function. A repeated measures ANOVA was used with SPSS statistical software to determine significance. Post hoc analysis with paired samples t-tests were done for significant values.
Analysis/Results: During the pre-focus groups, students gave a few comments but not well thought out responses about SEL. Four themes emerged from the post focus groups where students were able to give specific examples of SEL competencies they were introduced to during PE class. Post Teaching Reflective Analysis (PTRA) observations were included with the themes that were connected between student answers. The four main themes that emerged were talking to each other, helping others, new bonds, and come up with a team strategy.
A quasi-experimental, within-subject design was used to test executive function. Statistical analysis was conducted on reaction time (RT) and response accuracy (RA). Findings were reported using the Greenhouse-Geisser statistic with a significance level of p=0.05. A main effect of time for congruent RT revealed a significant value at p= 0.018. Post hoc tests revealed that the comparisons between before and mid-term PE for congruent RT yielded significant results with p<0.001.
Conclusions: Students provided specific examples of SEL competencies that they were introduced to in their PE class for the semester based on different activities and games that were taught. Since congruent RT trials yielded the only significant results during the Flanker Task, an assumption can be made that students did get better in their general cognitive processing of information but not inhibitory control. The congruent RT trials improved based on the students’ information processing, and they were able to get better and respond faster to stimuli from before PE to mid-term PE. There was a quick improvement suggesting a threshold effect from before PE to mid-term PE but not much from mid-term PE to after PE. An assumption can be made that the general cognitive improvements are associated with the actual PE class from either the way the lessons were delivered or the actual activity they received in PE where they are doing things in class they previously had not done.
Joint Associations of Aerobic and Muscle-Strengthening Exercise with Mental Health
Ryan D. BurnsF1, University of Utah; Youngwon Kim, University of Hong Kong; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno; Wonwoo Byun, Yang Bai, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Compromised mental health during adolescence may lead to substance abuse and poor academic achievement that can manifest barriers for success in young adulthood and later in life. Poor mental health may also increase the risk of having a suicidal ideation and subsequent suicide attempts among this age group. Physical activity (PA) is a health behavior that has been shown to have numerous benefits for adolescents including improved mental health and wellbeing. Different types of PA may independently and/or jointly correlate with mental health problems. The purpose of this study was to examine the independent and joint associations of meeting aerobic physical activity (PA) and muscle-strengthening exercise (MSE) recommendations with mental health problems in adolescents.
Method: Participants were US adolescents who completed the 2015–2021 combined National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (N=61,298; 45.7% female). The outcomes were binary response items asking about feeling sad or hopeless, having difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions, and having a suicidal ideation. The preventive exposure variables were items asking about weekly frequency of aerobic PA and MSE with responses dichotomized to align with the World Health Organization’s recommendations (aerobic PA: 60 minutes every day; MSE: greater than or equal to 3 days/week).
Analysis/Results: To examine the associations between meeting aerobic PA and MSE recommendations and each mental health outcome, robust Poisson regression models were employed controlling for several contextual and behavioral covariates selected using the double selection least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (lasso) in addition to age, sex, race/ethnicity, and body mass index. Prevalence ratios and adjusted prevalence ratios were calculated from the robust Poisson regression models. Meeting aerobic PA or MSE recommendation alone significantly associated with a 4–10% lower prevalence of mental health problems (p < 0.05). After covariate adjustment using lasso, meeting both aerobic PA and MSE recommendations associated with a 17% lower prevalence of feeling sad or hopeless (Adjusted Prevalence Ratio (APR) = 0.83, p < 0.001), a 15% lower prevalence of difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions (APR=0.85, p<0.001), and a 20% lower prevalence of suicidal ideation (APR = 0.80, p < 0.001) compared to not meeting any recommendations.
Conclusions: Meeting aerobic PA and MSE recommendations associated with a lower prevalence of adolescent mental health problems. Future research should examine these associations by acquiring contextual information regarding the social environment in addition to using device-based assessments of PA. Promotion of MSE in school and community settings may have additive benefits for an adolescent’s mental health when combined with aerobic PA.
Parental Perception of Facilitators and Barriers to Childhood Physical Activity
Michael W. Ertel1, University of South Carolina; Amanda L. Campbell, Bridgewater College; Jill Webster Lassiter, James Madison University; Andrea Taliaferro, Ali BrianF, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: Currently, fewer than half of preschoolers meet the recommended daily physical activity guidelines in the US. While schools are one opportunity to encourage physical activity, at the preschool level, parents play an exceedingly important role in creating an environment conducive to their child’s physical activity. The purpose of this study was to examine the parental perception of facilitators and barriers to children’s physical activity at home among low-income families who participated in a school-based early childhood physical activity program.
Method: Students (N = 625) and their parents were invited to participate in a school-based early childhood program [PALS] designed to increase physical activity and improve motor development among young children. Eleven parents consented to participate in a semi-structured interview regarding their perceptions of physical activity and their experience with the PALS program. Interviews occurred after 6 months of program participation. An inductive, naturalistic evaluation approach was utilized for qualitative data analysis, following the six recursive phases of thematic analysis. Initial open coding uncovered multiple broad themes which were only retained if they had been initially coded by each member of the research team. Refining themes and generating operational definitions utilized a constant comparative method to help ensure intercoder reliability.
Analysis/Results: The sample consisted of 11 parents with at least one child between the ages of 3 and 5 years old. Each parent attended between three and six PALS sessions with their child. All families lived in a rural setting and qualified for free or reduced lunch. A review of the interview transcripts revealed that all parents valued physical activity and encouraged their children to be active. After extensive deliberation, perceived benefits, knowledge about physical activity, social factors, personality, and access to equipment and resources were the defining themes that categorized facilitators of physical activity. Barriers included weather, parental constraints, child disability, technology, safety, lack of resources, and school-related factors.
Conclusions: Parents frequently referenced the value of physical activity and the information they learned from PALS as reinforcement for their desire and ability to engage their children in activity, demonstrating the importance of parent education. The PALS program provided equipment that families found beneficial to supplement the resources they already had access to, such as parks and sports programs. The personality of the child, parental desire to spend time with their children, parental role modeling, and having other youth to play with were factors that the sample of parents perceived as major facilitators of physical activity. These factors are largely circumstantial and attitudinal and thus are difficult to modify but are nonetheless important to be cognizant of when designing interventions. The most noted barrier to physical activity was weather and emphasizing the importance of teaching parents about how to engage their children in indoor physical activities. Additionally, those parents without time or health limitations were better equipped to overcome other barriers such as an over-reliance on technology and a lack of safety being outside alone. The expectancy-value theory of motivation can help frame many of the recurring themes.
Participation in Smashball Recess in Elementary Schools In Flanders
Kian Vanluyten1, Shu Cheng, Tonghe Zhang, Jana Bosmans, KU Leuven; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education; Jan Seghers, KU Leuven; Phillip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate voluntary participation in smashball during lunch recess in elementary schools. Smashball is an elementary version of volleyball. Physical activities organized during recess can provide an opportunity for children to engage in activities learned during physical education, and thus contribute to the daily recommended MVPA for all children (Cheng et al., 2021, Coolkens et al., 2018, Vanluyten et al., 2023). We investigated how many children voluntary participated during smashball recess sessions based on sex and skill level, during both a generalization and maintenance phase.
Method: A total of 124 (52 girls, 72 boys) K-4 elementary school children from six schools received a 10-lesson smashball Sport Education season during their regular physical education lesson. Concurrently with the Sport Education season (i.e., generalization phase), five smashball sessions were offered during lunch recess, and a further five sessions were organized when the Sport Education smashball season had ended (i.e., maintenance). Children could choose to voluntary participate in smashball recess or stay on the playground as usual during lunch recess. Smashball recess sessions were held in the gymnasium where physical education lessons took place.
Analysis/Results: No significant differences were found in participation between boys (40%) and girls (41%), except for recess session 2 where there were 65% of girls participating versus 32% of boys (p<.001). In terms of participation concerning skill level there were no significant differences found across sessions, with 38% for high skilled children, and 43% for their lower skilled peers. There were no differences in participation between boys and girls during the generalization (39% vs 50%) and maintenance phase (40% vs 32%) nor for skill level in each phase (42% vs 46%, and 34% vs 41%). Girls had higher participation rates during generalization (52%) compared to maintenance (32%) phase (p=0.003). No differences existed for boys (39% vs 40%).
Conclusions: The smashball recess sessions created an opportunity to practice the skills learned during physical education and engage in physical activity during recess. Our results show that a substantial number of children, especially girls and low skilled children, are willing to engage in content taught in physical education during organized recess sessions. Our results provide a step towards the goal of having children engage in content learned in physical education in other settings (e.g., recess, out-of-school). The study can be situated within investigations examining the effect of generalization of participation from physical education to recess and extends that literature using a new content area, smashball.
PETE Student-Led Campus and Community Physical Activity
Shannon C. Mulhearn1, Kelly Snelling, University of Nebraska at Kearney
Background/Purpose: It is well accepted that the least often enacted component of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) is Family & Community Engagement. Many have noted a need for university physical education teacher education (PETE) programs to model outreach and engagement to encourage future physical educators to participate in CSPAP. Public school districts have reported benefits of social marketing and of being socially embedded in their community such as improvements in encouraging citizenship and community engagement (e.g., Morel, 2021). The present study was grounded in the theory of social connectedness (Yoon et al., 2008) and hypothesized that participation in a university-based daily walking/running social group would result in benefits to students both in the face-to-face campus and online campus settings. A secondary purpose was to determine if leadership roles for PETE undergraduate students would encourage future CSPAP leadership and integration.
Method: The research team mapped out and recorded (with a GoPro) a series of 1-mile runs each beginning at a different building on campus. All videos were uploaded on the university’s website. A direct link to the webpage was provided to all students (face-to-face and online). Participants were challenged to complete all 30 routes and to post about their daily mile participation on social media using designated hashtags and by ‘tagging’ the program.
A pre-/post-questionnaire was designed based on Yoon and colleagues, (2008) work to assess participants’ sense of connectedness asking students about time spent on campus, satisfaction with being a student, and feelings of connection with the university.
Participants were encouraged to follow the program and post to their social media, and to log daily activity through a link to an electronic form (Qualtrics). Members of the research team maintained a log of social media interactions and logged miles.
Analysis/Results: Over 520 miles were logged by participants. The undergraduate student leader logged 81 social media posts which received 460 ‘likes’ and received 20 additional mentions. Student participants reported feeling positively connected to their campus. Additionally, participants began asking about the next challenge. PETE students involved in the design of the routes and collection of video reels also have discussed ways to integrate this type of program into their future K-12 settings to encourage students to be active after school hours and as a fun way to allow family members to see the campus even if they work during the day or live a far distance from the school.
Conclusions: This university-wide physical activity promotion program required minimal resources and relied on undergraduate student leadership and participation. The success of the model may encourage future physical educators completing their degree at this location to involve their own K-12 students in video-based programs that introduce family and community members to their campus while also advocating for engagement in physical activity.
Physical Education and Physical Activity Access in Elementary Schools Across CSPAP Components
Chad M. Killian1, University of New Hampshire; Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming; Wesley J. Wilson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Hans van der MarsF, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) recommendations for school-aged youth represent baselines for health-enhancing PA engagement (USHHS, 2018). However, many students do not regularly meet weekly targeted PA levels. Various factors influence participation, but opportunities to engage in PA are foundational to actual engagement, and school-aged youth tend to be more active when more opportunities are available (Beets et al., 2016). Schools are well positioned to support students’ PA participation as a regular environment available for the provision of instructional and unstructured PA opportunities. The Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP; CDC, 2019) is a framework stakeholders can use to support the expansion of physical education and PA opportunities across multiple school-based and community-based settings. CSPAPs are explicitly conceptualized to support students’ engagement in reaching the recommended 60-minutes of MVPA. Despite growing interest in CSPAPs, the extent to which schools offer expanded PA opportunities across the five CSPAP components is not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the provision of PA opportunities in elementary schools across each of the student focused CSPAP components.
Method: Elementary physical education teachers (n = 2184) from 25 states completed the U.S. Physical Education and Physical Activity Policy implementation survey (Kern et al., in review) electronically via Qualtrics (Provo, UT). The survey includes 19-items related to physical education access, as well as 6-items designed to capture weekly scheduled minutes of recess, before/during/after school, and weekend PA opportunities. Physical education teachers were identified as key participants because of their knowledge of available PA opportunities at their schools. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each state individually for weekly minutes of elementary physical education, recess, before/during/after school, and weekend PA. Comparisons with recommendations were made where appropriate.
Analysis/Results: Respondents from only one state reported providing physical education instructional time in line with the recommended 150 weekly minutes. In over 70% of the states, less than 100 minutes of physical education were offered per week. Weekly recess opportunities were above the recommended 100 minutes/week in 80% of the states. Participants from 14 states noted their schools offered at least 50 weekly minutes of before school PA opportunities and participants from 15 states reported at least 100 weekly minutes of after school PA opportunities. There were limited responses related to during school and weekend PA opportunities, however the available data reflected minimal opportunities.
Conclusions: Elementary schools appeared to provide substantial opportunities for students to participate in PA during recesses and in before- and after-school contexts. The nature of these opportunities and students’ levels of PA engagement were not observed and represent a key area for future inquiry. The provision of physical education opportunities was restricted and well below national recommendations. Given the central nature of physical education within the CSPAP framework, the limited instructional time noted in this study is problematic. Future research should be focused on the impact of physical education instructional time on PA participation within other components of CSPAP. Consideration regarding the feasibility of current recommendations for weekly physical education may also be warranted.
Post-Pandemic College Student Physical Activity Level and Sleep Pattern Exploration
Yeonhak Jung1, California State University, Northridge
Background/Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic brought about changes in numerous aspects of life. Physical inactivity and irregular sleep patterns have been reported (Meyer et al., 2020; Hargreaves et al., 2021) and this phenomenon has been identified as one of the most serious health concerns in college students. We assume the post-lockdown would change back to a positive and normal lifestyle such as increasing physical activity and sleep patterns, but the outcome was different. Using a longitudinal design, the purpose of this study was to explore changes in physical activity (PA) levels and sleep patterns (SP) during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method: A total of 102 college students who had taken fitness/health-related coursework participated in the study. The first data was collected in 2021 during an online class, and the second and third data were collected in 2022 during an in-person class. As a within-subject design using repeated measures, students’ PA level and SP level were collected three-time points (online - first in-person - post-in-person) using Fitbit® Inspire 3. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in step counts and sleep amount over the years.
Analysis/Results: College Students using wearable technology significantly changes in step-counts over time, F (2, 99) = 17.58, p < .05, partial = .03, but there was no significant difference between sleep-amounts at the different time points (p> .05). Post-hoc analysis with a Bonferroni adjustment revealed that step-counts significantly increased from online to the first in-person class (M change = 603.63, 95% CI [158.72-1365.97], but not from online class (M = 6402.17) to post in-person class (p > .05). Upon the commencement of the initial in-person class, there was an observable increase in students’ levels of physical activity; however, this elevation was subsequently followed by a return to pre-pandemic activity levels.
Conclusions: The Physical Activity Guidelines (Piercy et al., 2018) advocate for a healthy PA level of 8,000 to 10,000 steps per day, roughly equating to 60 minutes of daily walking at an intensity of 3 METs. Despite this recommendation, the PA levels among college students consistently fall below the stipulated target. Moreover, the integration of wearable technology within in-person classes resulted in an initial upsurge in PA behavior, which regressed to pre-pandemic levels upon class conclusion. Concurrently, sleep patterns displayed minimal variation. While the employment of wearable technology in instructional settings exhibited immediate influence on the modification of physical activity behavior, its sustained efficacy is limited. The alteration of sleep patterns presents a greater challenge to effectuate. Subsequent research endeavors should prioritize the identification of effective course activities conducive to instigating enduring changes in college students’ physical activity behavior and sleep patterns, particularly in the context of the ongoing post-pandemic, for the cultivation of healthy lifestyles.
Pre-Service Classroom Teachers’ Attitudes and Competencies Towards Promoting Physical Activity in Schools: A Pilot Study
Luciana Zuest1, Towson University; Xiaoping Fan, SUNY Cortland
Background/Purpose: Classroom teachers’ (CTs) knowledge, skills, and dispositions related to physical activity (PA) promotion in schools play a critical role in the extent to which they choose to provide their students with opportunities to be active throughout the day. Traditionally, CTs do not receive training during college on promoting PA among children (Cothran et al., 2010; DeCorby et al., 2005) and may lack the competencies and attitudes needed to do so. This pilot study aimed to examine the changes in pre-service CTs’ attitudes and competencies related to PA promotion after completing a 3-credit college course focused on children and movement.
Method: Participants were 63 pre-service CTs majoring in Liberal Studies (a pre-requisite degree for a single subject teaching credential in California). Participants were enrolled in three sessions of the course “Foundations of Childhood Physical Education” during one semester. Data were collected using two questionnaires administered on the first and last day of classes: a) the School Physical Activity Promotion Attitude Questionnaire (SPAPAQ; Webster et al., 2010) and b) the School Physical Activity Promotion Competence Questionnaire (SPAPCQ; Webster et al., 2010). A paired-sample t-test was conducted to compare pre-and post-scores for both questionnaires (Welkowitz et al., 2012).
Analysis/Results: The analysis revealed that a significant difference in the scores for the SPAPCQ before (M=3.3, SD=1.8) and after the course (M = 5.19, SD = 1.1); t(62) = –9.4, p = .000. Likewise, there was a significant difference in the scores for SPAPAQ before (M = 3.3, SD = .32) and after the course (M = 3.5, SD = .27); t(62) = –3.9, p = .000.
Conclusions: The results indicate that participants’ attitudes and competencies related to promoting PA in schools improved after completing the course. Notably, the difference in mean scores was greater for the SPAPCQ questionnaire indicating that participants’ competencies improved to a larger degree than their attitudes toward promoting PA in schools. This study highlighted the effectiveness of targeted training (i.e., children and movement-focused college course) in enhancing pre-service CTs’ knowledge and skills regarding PA promotion. In conclusion, the results support the notion that providing specialized training to pre-service CTs can lead to positive changes in their attitudes and competencies related to promoting school-based PA.
Preliminary Impact of the Summer Day Camp Project Power on Weight and Health-Related Behaviors
Senlin ChenF1, Louisiana State University; Amanda E. Staiano, Pennington Biomedical Research Center
Background/Purpose: Children gain excess weight during unstructured summer months, as shown in multiple prospective observational trials. Summer camps offer unique opportunities for children and adolescents for healthy, structured eating and physical activity. The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the preliminary impact of a summer camp called “Project Power” on participants’ physical activity, screen time, sleep, and weight status.
Method: This pilot study involved 42 participants ages 6-14 years old who attended the five-day “Project Power” summer camp hosted by the American Diabetes Association during two separate summers. Curriculum for the program was based on the Kids N Fitness lifestyle program, which includes interactive nutrition and exercise sessions with behavior modification. Children were recruited based on their risk for type 2 diabetes considering their current obesity status and/or family medical history. Body height was measured at Day 1, and weight was measured at Days 1 and 5. Three obesity-related behaviors including physical activity (i.e., number of days in past 7 days being active for 60+ minutes), screen time (i.e., time spent on TV, video and computer games, respectively), and sleep (i.e., hours and minutes of sleep) were pre- and post-assessed using a validated survey. Parents completed a survey to give information on the child’s sociodemographic characteristics, including sex, date of birth, and parents’ marital status, highest level of education, family income, occupation, employment status, and brief medical history. Paired t-tests were conducted to examine pre-to-post changes in physical activity, screen time, sleep, and weight. Repeated measure (Day 1 vs. Day 5) ANOVAs were subsequently conducted to examine changes in these variables in by sex (males vs. females) and family income (higher than or equal to $50,000 vs. lower than $50,000 annually).
Analysis/Results: Of the 44 participants, 33 provided complete data across the assessments. Physical activity (from 3.81 to 4.18 days per week), screen time (from 5.43 to 4.48 hours per day), and weight (from 53.14 to 51.71 pounds) showed desirable pre-to-post change pattern, while sleep time showed a decrease (from 9.81 to 9.49 hours per day). Screen time was the only variable that exhibited significant reduction (t = 2.10, p < 0.05). The changes in physical activity, screen time, sleep, and weight did not differ by sex or family income (p > 0.05).
Conclusions: The five-day “Project Power” summer camp showed some preliminary impact on physical activity, screen time, sleep, and weight, with significant reduction observed for screen time. Favorable change patterns in health-related behaviors and body weight indicate a promising potential of this summer camp in rendering more significant impact among at-risk children and adolescents for obesity and chronic diseases (e.g., type 2 diabetes). Future research involving a larger and more diverse sample and a control group would determine the efficacy or effectiveness of the camp. The findings from this study contribute to the vision of SHAPE America – envisioning a nation where all children are prepared to lead healthy, physically active lives.
Qualitative Analysis of CSPAP Preparation in Teacher Education: Faculty Perspectives
Hayley B. McKown, University of Idaho; Cate A. EganF1, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences; Christopher Merica, University of North Carolina Wilmington; Karie Lee Orendorff, Montana State University
Background/Purpose: The majority of youth in the United States do not meet national physical activity (PA) guidelines. School-based physical education (PE) can help students achieve PA goals, but most schools fail to offer the recommended minutes of PE. A Comprehensive School PA Program (CSPAP) is designed to help youth meet PA recommendations, but uptake of CSPAP in K-12 schools is low. PE teachers are called upon to be school PA leaders who organize CSPAP, but many do not have the requisite skillset to do so. Towards this end, researchers suggest integrating PA leadership training for CSPAP into PE teacher education programs. Current literature has highlighted programs which integrate PA leadership and CSPAP training into their curriculums; however, little information exists about to what degree these learning experiences exist in PE teacher education (e.g., classes, types of assignments). Thus, the purpose of this study was to learn about PE teacher education faculty’s personal and professional experiences with CSPAP, and how CSPAP is integrated into their curriculum and program.
Method: This study was part of a larger study (United States Survey of CSPAP training in PE teacher education programs). For the current study, 21 PE teacher education faculty agreed to be interviewed. Interviews were M= 39.82 minutes (R= 21.22 - 66.3 minutes) and example interview questions included: “Describe how CSPAP was modeled to you either in K-12 or undergraduate/graduate training programs,” “Tell me why you have decided to implement CSPAP training into your program,” “How does your program/department support your efforts to implement a CSPAP?” and “If you were to leave your program, do you think that CSPAP would continue to be supported and integrated into your curriculum? Please describe why or why not.”
Analysis/Results: All transcripts were transcribed verbatim, and participants were assigned a pseudonym at the transcript level. Two authors independently coded data using inductive analysis and then met to discuss similarities and negative cases across the data. Initial codes and categories emerged, and further analysis revealed emerging themes. Trustworthiness strategies included member checking, peer debriefing, and investigator triangulation. Four initial themes emerged along with subthemes: (1) How they came to CSPAP (strong K-12 PE teacher, conferences and trainings, graduate mentors, research evidence), (2) Personal Philosophy (belief in CSPAP and self, problem solvers, pride in providing opportunities), (3) Limitations (lack of room in curriculum, not in standards, lack of value by others) (4) CSPAP Integration (CSPAP sprinkled into classes, focus on graduate preparation for CSPAP, part of research agenda, focus on more than content).
Conclusions: Adopters of CSPAP-based courses and curriculum in PE teacher education have personal philosophies that align with providing expanded PA opportunities for children. Additionally, their personal philosophy and self-efficacy towards CSPAP implementation gives them the ability to overcome barriers related to including CSPAP in their curriculum. Integrating CSPAP into initial teaching standards and K-12 standards may help to support continued and expanded CSPAP training experiences in higher education. More research on CSPAP integration into PE teacher education programs is warranted, specifically reasons behind not integrating CSPAP into curriculum and/or courses.
Sport Education Roles and Health-Related Fitness Markers
Luis Gabriel Estrada1, University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras; Carlos Evangelio Caballero, Facultad de Magisterio, Universidad de Valencia and Universidad Castilla-La Mancha; Eva Guijarro-Jareño, Universidad Internacional de La Rioja; Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine health-related fitness markers on SE playing roles (captain, trainer) and non-playing roles (manager equipment, judge and journalist) on an Edu-crossfit season.
Method: An experimental design was used for this study. A total of 70 elementary students (36 boys and 34 girls) between 9 to 11 years old (M=10.7,SD=.671) from Puerto Rico participated on a 16th lessons of (60 minutes) two times per week Edu-crossfit season. SE roles were divided in two groups playing roles (students that its role allow to perform the exercises and duties simultaneously, e.g., captain, trainer) and non-playing roles (students that its role do not allow to perform the exercises and duties simultaneously e.g., manager equipment, judge, journalist). Fitnessgram test (pacer, push-ups and sit-ups) were used as a data collection method. Paired sample t-test was conducted to determine the effect of intervention on the three measurements (pre-post test). An analysis of variances (ANOVA) was used to see if many differences were in means within pre, pre-post, and post test measurements among the two groups of students SE roles.
Analysis/Results: Overall, results (N=70) indicate significant differences of improvement (P=<.001) between pre and posttests (pacer, push-ups, and sit-ups). Within respect of the playing and non-playing roles groups, there were no significant differences (P = >.005) when comparing pretest scores. All students started from the same fitness levels in the variables measured. In terms of the ANOVA analysis a slightly better performing were identified for the SE playing roles with higher pacer score (M=5.553, SD=3.277), push-ups (M = 2.233, SD = 1.524) and sit-up scores (M = 3.067,SD = 2.348) than non-playing roles with pacer (SD = 4.975,SD = 4.079), push-ups (SD = 2.100,SD = 1.336) and sit-ups (M=3.025, SD = 2.259) but no statistics significant (P =>.005).Lastly, posttest results indicate no significant differences within the health related fitness markers scores (P =<.005).
Conclusions: For overall students, the Sport Education Model demonstrates its reliability to improve health-related fitness markers (pacer, push-ups, and sit-ups) within fitness content in Puerto Rico. However SE playing and non-playing roles on an Edu-crossfit season do not show significant differences within the health related fitness markers through the season. The selection or assignation of SE playing or non-playing roles during an SE season will not have a significant impact on fitness outcomes. Despite students’ gender, physical educators should consider switching roles during fitness content season to maximize the SE benefits on the others physical education domains.
Staff Perceptions of The Implementation of an After-School Playground Curriculum Intervention
Hyungsik Min1, Mengyi Wei, Allison Poulos, Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Omar Albaloul, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: After-school programs are widely recognized as a primary resource that fosters physical activity and overall well-being among school-aged children. Utilizing established curricula during after-school time can improve children’s physical, social, and emotional health; however, few studies have examined the factors associated with the practical implementation of such programs. The purpose of the study was to investigate the program staff’s (i.e., program leaders, student leaders) perceptions of the implementation of the curriculum.
Method: The Play On! curriculum was developed to enhance children’s overall fitness and learning on the playground. The present study implemented the Play On! program with an added emphasis on social-emotional learning in seven elementary school afterschool programs in Arizona over a span of 16 weeks. Participants (N = 20; 5 university student leaders, 15 school staff) were recruited to participate in individual interviews lasting 30 to 45 minutes. The transcribed interview data were then analyzed using an open-axial coding approach, followed by thematic analysis. To ensure the trustworthiness of the interview data, three strategies, including member checking, peer debriefing, and negative case analysis, were employed.
Analysis/Results: Four themes were discovered describing a) the implementation of Play On!, in afterschool programs, b) educational value, c) challenges and barriers, and d) improvement and future direction. First, participants provided positive feedback on the implementation of the curriculum, appreciating the detailed implementation procedures and engaging and appealing activities led by well-prepared university student leaders. For example, participants highlighted that “It’s so helpful to already have that (activities) planned out.”, “I feel like it’s a good fit.” “With enough staffing, it’s definitely super feasible” and “They’re very involved with it (curriculum).” Second, participants identified the benefits of students attending the program, including increased physical activity, enjoyment, social interaction, responsible behavior, and a reduction in aggressive behavior in children. However, the leaders noted significant challenges and barriers, especially in large sites or schools, related to staffing and scheduling. Student leaders also expressed concerns about engaging less motivated students. Finally, as improvement and future directions, participants pointed out the importance of including classroom management strategies demonstrated by physical education teachers and observation and practice of playground activities in future education. They also suggested improvements in age-appropriate activities for future implementation, as well as a stronger alignment between socio-emotional learning discussions and playground activities.
Conclusions: Implementation of the Play On! playground curriculum with a social-emotional learning component in after-school programs was enhanced by detailed design and delivery of the intervention, as well as providing staff and quality training. Physical, social, and behavioral benefits can be achieved when a high level of fidelity is attained. These facilitators as well as additional challenges, including staffing and scheduling, should be considered in future interventions in after-school settings.
Students’ Access to Physical Education in 25 US States: The US Physical Education and Physical Activity Policy Implementation Project
Ben D. Kern1, University of Wyoming; Chad M. Killian, University of New Hampshire; Wesley J. Wilson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Hans van der MarsF, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Physical education promotes students physical, mental, and social/emotional health throughout the lifespan. However, physical education instructional time has been reduced, in part, due to lack of implementation of state-level physical education and physical activity policies. This trend has likely impacted physical education for students with disabilities as well, though no direct measures are available. To date, no comprehensive studies have been conducted to accurately document the status of physical education access in the US. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gather and evaluate accurate, up-to-date information on physical education policy implementation in schools across 25 US states as reported by in-service physical educators.
Method: The US Physical Education and Physical Activity Policy (US-PEPAP) implementation survey was developed and distributed electronically to 54,264 K-12 public-school physical educators in 25 U.S. states (AL, AZ, CA, CO, IA, IL, LA, MI, MN, MO, NC, NE, NH, NM, NV, NY, OH, OR, PA, RI, TX, UT, VA, WI, WV), with 5,405 providing complete data. The US-PEPAP items included questions related to: (a) scheduled quantity of physical education in pre-Kindergarten to 12th grade and for students with disabilities, (b) number of students/physical education class, (c) factors impacting physical education access such as withholding for academic or disciplinary reasons, counting toward grade-point-average, and allowing waivers, substitutions, exemptions, or use of online physical education credits.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were calculated for each state individually and for grade level clusters (elementary, middle, high school, and students with disabilities aggregated). Elementary physical education minutes/week ranged from 57.2, SD=35.6 in UT to 176.1, SD=35.1 in AL (Mean = 98.7, SD = 50.9). Middle school physical education minutes/week ranged from 89.9, SD = 33.7 in NH to 235.2, SD = 72.8 in NM (Mean = 151.1, SD = 70.7), and high school minutes/week ranged from 107.4, SD=34.1 in RI to 278.6, SD = 162.1 in NV (Mean = 175.9, SD = 83.9). Physical education minutes/week for students with disabilities across all grade levels ranged from 110.7 (SD = 102.9) in NC to 217.2, SD = 32.6 in NV (Mean = 149.4, SD = 83.9). Elementary class sizes ranged from 17.9, SD = 2.6 in NH to 58.8, SD = 25.2 in AL (Mean = 30.1, SD=19.9). Middle school /class sizes ranged from 19.7, SD = 5.0 in NH to 55.8, SD=25.1 in AL (Mean = 32.4, SD=21.4). High school class sizes ranged from 16.3, SD = 10.0 in LA to 40.3, SD = 18.1 in CA (Mean = 29.8, SD = 18.6).
Conclusions: Weekly minutes of physical education varied considerably between states and on average were far below recommended levels (150 minutes/week elementary, 225 minutes/week secondary). Additionally, high variability in physical education class sizes were observed, with average students/class at or above 30 in elementary, middle, and high schools. Student access to physical education in the 25 US states surveyed has largely diminished due to lack of adequate scheduled instructional time combined with excessively large class sizes. These factors not only restrict student access, but also reduce the potential for quality instruction. Future research should examine access to physical education with regard to policy implementation in the remaining 25 US states, and state policies and their implementation should be revisited by legislators and district leaders in many US states.
The Association between Profiles of Perceived Physical Literacy and Fitness in College Students
Yang Liu1, Wuhan University of Technology; Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University; Baofu Wang, Western Illinois University; Yiwu Yang, Jimei Yang, Wuhan University of Technology; Bin Long, Wuhan Sports University
Background/Purpose: Physical literacy is considered a determinant of lifetime physical activity and health-enhancing physical fitness. Rarely has prior research examined the role of students’ perceived physical literacy (PPL) in physical activity and fitness promotion. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between PPL and fitness outcomes in college students.
Method: A total of 968 college students (females: n = 414) from a major public university in central China completed the perceived physical literacy instrument (Ma et al., 2020) and seven validated fitness tests including (a) body mass index (BMI); (b) lung capacity (LC); (c) 800m (female)/1000m (male) distance running (DR); (d) 50 meters dash (50M); (e) sit-up/pull-up (SP); (f) standing long jump (SLJ); and (g) sit-and-reach (SAR). Cluster analysis (Ward’s method) was conducted to identify profiles of PPL; while one-way ANOVA was performed to verify the classification by gender. Group differences (reported in eta square [η2] and Cohen’s d) in fitness outcomes for female and male students were examined separately using inferential analyses.
Analysis/Results: Three PPL subgroups (high, medium, and low) were identified, which were verified using one-way ANOVA for female (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.75) and male (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.78) students. For female students, 50M (p = 0.04, η2 = 0.02), SAR (p = 0.05, η2 = 0.02), DR (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.04), and SP (p = 0.01, η2 = 0.03) significantly differed by PPL profiles. Specifically, female students’ 50M (d = -0.35), SAR (d = 0.33), LR (d = –0.47), and SP (d = 0.43) results favored the high PPL subgroup over low PPL subgroups. SP (d = 0.32) favored high PPL subgroup over medium PPL subgroup. LR (d = –0.34) favored medium PPL subgroup over low PPL subgroup. Similarly, 50M (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.04), SLJ (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.06), DR (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.07), and SP (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.03) results also differed by PPL profiles in male students. Specifically, male students’ 50M (d = –0.51), SLJ (d = 0.67), LR (d = -0.78), and SP (d = 0.48) results favored the high PPL subgroup over low PPL subgroup. Male students’ 50M (d = -0.13), SLJ (d = 0.34), and LR (d = –0.40) results also favored high PPL subgroup over medium PPL group. Male students’ 50M (d = –0.40), SLJ (d = 0.37), and LR (d = -0.41) results further favored the medium PPL subgroup over low PPL subgroup.
Conclusions: The study indicates that PPL is a significant correlate of fitness among college students. Higher levels of PPL are associated with higher fitness testing outcomes, while lower PPL correlates with lower fitness outcomes. The findings provide empirical evidence to the importance of incorporating strategies to increase students’ PPL in college physical activity programs.
The Effects of a PE Parkour Unit on Students’ Participation in and Perceptions of Physical Activity During Recess
Matt Wood1, Tacoma Public Schools
Background/Purpose: To help students meet the recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity at school and to increase public access to city parks outside of school hours, the playground at my school is being renovated through community partnerships (SHAPE America, 2013). As part of a CSPAP physical activity initiative, we partnered with a youth parkour academy (Kong Academy) from Seattle to teach a parkour unit in PE to give students a novel way to play on their new playground during recess. The researcher conducted an action research study with 65 fourth graders to investigate their participation in and perceptions of physical activity at recess during their PE parkour intervention.
Method: The PE parkour unit took place over two 30-minute PE lessons each week for three weeks (six lessons total). The Kong Academy instructor was the lead teacher for five days, and the researcher was the lead teacher for the other ten days. Students learned and practiced basic parkour skills, including quadrupedal movement (QM), precision jumping and landing, vaulting, tic tacs, wall runs, balancing, and rolling. Students were then encouraged, through various prompts, to explore the playground during recess using their parkour skills. Prompts consisted of verbal reminders during PE lessons to continue practicing parkour at recess and posters around the gym and in the hallway reminding students about responsibility and responsible decision-making. Additionally, the researchers created a short parkour video to play in PE class, demonstrating parkour skills students learned in the controlled gym environment and then in various locations around the playground and school to help students connect what they learned in PE to their recess environment. Data was collected through online surveys, recess field notes, draw-write-tell surveys, and focus groups.
Analysis/Results: The qualitative data from the field observations, draw-write-tell survey, and focus groups showed positive results of students’ participation in and perceptions of PA during recess after learning parkour in PE. The pre-intervention and post-intervention surveys with questions based around the affective domain using SHAPE’s national standards and grade-level outcomes were not as conclusive. The questions in the surveys were general and students had difficulty connecting their recess experiences to previous learning in PE. Despite this, the survey data were still noteworthy and can be used to guide future PA promotion at recess through instruction in PE with better worded questions. Future studies can benefit from strategies that include students’ voices.
Conclusions: Parkour was one of the most rewarding units I have taught, and the data collected from fourth-grade students demonstrated that they felt the same. The students loved learning parkour in PE and stated that there needs to be more parkour at school. The data collected from students overwhelmingly demonstrated positive perceptions of PA at recess after learning parkour in PE.
The Impact of an Eight-Week Senior Fit Intervention on Older Adults’ Physical Activity and Fall Risk
Xiangli GuF1, Kate Hyun, Kathy Lee, Angela Liegey-Dougall, Christoph Csallner, Stephen P. Mattingly, Kimberly Vanhoose, Troyee Saha, Varunee Lervisit, Jobaidul Alam Boni, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: Technology-infused physical activity (PA) interventions are promising strategies for reducing sedentary behaviors and fall risks among older adults (Health People, 2020). Age- and context-specified PA intervention programs may benefit the transfer of intervention outcomes to autonomy in activities of daily living. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an 8-week Senior Fit (A Mobile APP Infused PA Program) intervention on body mass index (BMI), daily PA, fall efficacy and fall risk among older adults. The obesity disparities in outcomes and its potential impact on the intervention effects were also investigated.
Method: A group randomized clinical trial study design was used to determine the effects of the Senior Fit on BMI, daily PA, fall efficacy, and fall risk. A total of 97 seniors (Female = 78, Meanage = 72.62, SD= 5.57; 95.8 % non-Hispanic, 19.6% Black, and 7.2% other minorities) were recruited and randomly allocated to five conditions: (1) goal-directed (n = 18), (2) researcher-guided (n = 20), (3) video motivated (n = 20), (4) social media (Facebook) motivated (n = 18) and (5) control groups (n = 21). All the assessments were conducted before and after the 8-week intervention. BMI was calculated by self-reported height and weight. The PA and fall risk were measured using the Community Healthy Activities Model Program for Seniors (CHAMPS) questionnaire, Falls Efficacy Scale (FES) and the Fall Risk Self-Assessment Questionnaire (FRQ). The paired sample t-tests and the multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA; sex as a covariate) were used to examine the research purposes.
Analysis/Results: Around 69% of older adults in this study were categorized as overweight/obese before the intervention. The MANCOVA models suggested that there were no significant group differences before the intervention for PA variables (Wilks’ Lambda =.853, F(20, 243)= .596; p=.91), and fall efficacy and risk (Wilks’ Lambda =.943, F(8, 180)= .667; p=.72). The ANOVA noted that there was a significant group effect (F(4, 60)= = 5.684, p <.001) on the BMI (F(1, 60)= = 328.69, p<.001), that is, both researcher-guided and Facebook groups showed significant decreased BMI from pre- to post assessments after the 8-week intervention and the overweight/obese rate was also significantly reduced (69.1% vs. 61.6%). The paired sample t-test further indicated moderate to higher effect (Cohen’s d) on PA for all intervention groups (p < .05). All experimental groups showed an increased fall efficacy and PA self- efficacy after the intervention (96.16 vs. 96.76 and 62.51 vs. 65.49; respectively) although the differences did not reach statistical significance.
Conclusions: Increasing total volume of PA is suggested to enhance overall mobility among older adults. The results showed that with convenient communicative technology strategies (e.g., Facebook) can motivate older adults’ daily PA engagement which may promote self-confidence towards exercise regardless of sex. Health practitioners should be aware that this approach would be beneficial to deliver health-related information and recommendations to older adults and to help them stay physically active and further prevent fall risks. The intervention dosage (e.g., duration, intensity, type) and its combined effects may be explored in this population.
The Moderating Effect of Race/Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status on Young Children’s Physical Activity Within Classroom Physical Activity Interventions: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
John P. Rech1, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Danae Dinkel, Adam Rosen, Michaela Schenkelberg, Jessica L. Baldwin, Priyanka Chaudhary, University of Nebraska at Omaha
Background/Purpose: Various classroom physical activity interventions for early childhood grades (preschool to 3rd grades) exist within the literature. Race and socioeconomic status (SES) have shown to be determinants of young children’s physical activity and are associated with inequities in educational resources within the United States but have not been widely investigated within classroom-based physical activity practices. The purpose of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to investigate the moderating effect of race and SES on children’s physical activity in early childhood grades as the result of classroom physical activity interventions conducted within the United States.
Method: An exhaustive search of four online databases was conducted, which resulted in 34 published peer-reviewed articles included in this study. A pooled random effects Hedges’s g model across 33 individual effect sizes was used to determine the treatment effect on children’s physical activity levels from pre- to post-intervention. Subgroup analyses were conducted to determine the moderating effect of race/ethnicity and SES.
Analysis/Results: Race/ethnicity and SES of children were not often considered in the intervention design, implementation, or effectiveness of the included interventions. A significant difference (p=0.016) in effects on children’s physical activity levels was found based on race/ethnicity, demonstrating a weaker effect (D=0.52) among majority non-White samples compared to majority White samples (D=1.16). No significant difference (p=0.93) was found between majority low SES (D=0.84) and majority non-low SES (D=0.86) samples. When race and SES were combined into a single moderator, a significant difference (p<0.001) in effects between majority non-White, low SES (D=0.39) and majority White, low SES (D=1.67) samples was found.
Conclusions: Findings from the systematic review suggest differences by race and SES may be partially contributed to differences in intervention components implemented. Results revealed significant differences in effects on children’s physical activity based on race and SES. Future work should explore cultural responsiveness of best practices for classroom-based physical activity and validate tools to measure this.
The Relationship Between Health-Related Fitness and Academic Performance Among Chinese Middle and High School Students
Han ChenF1, Valdosta State University; Jun Dai, Shanghai University of Sport; Haichun SunF, University of South Florida; Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: In China, there is a pandemic of low health-related fitness components, particularly concerning high obesity levels and low cardiovascular fitness levels. Since fitness tends to track into adulthood, the interventions should target individuals when they are young. Schools offer an excellent environment for promoting fitness since the majority of children or adolescents attend them. Nonetheless, the Physical Education (PE) program has been marginalized due to concerns about its impact on academic performance. Over the past few decades, numerous studies have established a connection between health-related fitness and academic performance. Research in this field is crucial, as the findings can offer evidence supporting the implementation of PE programs. Promoting health-related fitness might actually lead to improvements in academic performance, rather than a decline. However, the research in this field remains inconclusive, and the majority of studies have been conducted in western countries. The present study aims to investigate the relationship between health-related fitness (specifically BMI and cardiovascular fitness) and academic performance among Chinese middle and high school students.
Method: We randomly selected two middle schools and two high schools in Fuzhou city, located in southeast China. The final sample comprised 251 participants, with 139 middle school students (n = 139). We collected basic information, including grades and gender, and measured the height and weight of the participants. Cardiovascular fitness was assessed through a 1000-meter run, and we also collected standardized math test scores. Independent multiple regressions were conducted to examine if cardiovascular fitness and BMI could predict math performance while accounting for gender and grades.
Analysis/Results: For cardiovascular fitness, the overall regression was statistically significant, R2 = .11, F(3) = 5.08, p < .05. Cardiovascular fitness is a significant predictor (β = –.07, p <. 05) for math performance. For BMI, the overall regression was statistically significant, R2 = .11, F(3) = 9.99, p < .05. BMI is a significant predictor (β = –.16, p < .05) for math performance.
Conclusions: Results from the cross-sectional data show that both cardiovascular fitness and BMI significantly predicted standardized math performance. Future study should explore if changes of health-related fitness could result in a positive change in academic performance.
U.S. Islamic Schools’ Promotion of Physical Education and Physical Activity
David Kahan1, Coastal Carolina University
Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) teachers and their schools are encouraged to provide multiple opportunities throughout the school day for students to accrue physical activity (PA). Promotion of such opportunities (e.g., PE, intramural PA, interscholastic sports) should occur in PE class as well as on multiple media platforms, which include the school website. Results of previous studies of >2700 websites among charter, private, and Jewish schools found that PE (e.g., curriculum) was not as prominently displayed as other content areas and intramural (6%–45% of websites) and interscholastic (9%–45% of websites) PA was also lacking. Islamic canon promotes specific forms of PA and health is second only to one’s faith in importance. Yet little is known about PE/PA in U.S. Islamic schools. Therefore, we conducted a content analysis of such schools’ websites to determine to what degree these three sources of PA are promoted and how they compare to previous studies.
Method: We used three electronic directories to create a sampling frame of 714 schools. The final analytic sample consisted of 222 schools with all having a working website, physical location, and serving students from kindergarten to twelfth grade. The websites of the schools were searched line-by-line for the mention of PE and related content (i.e., curriculum, teachers), intramural PA, interscholastic sport, and PA facilities, and for depictions of PA images. We started on the homepage or landing page of each school, then navigated and searched the drop-down menus of tabs typically titled “About Us,” “Academics,” “Athletics,” and “School Life” or “Community.” The data were extracted by two trained students who independently coded websites and compared codes with a senior author until they surpassed an 80% inter-rater reliability.
Analysis/Results: We calculated frequencies, proportions, and measures of central tendency and variability. PE ranked 7th relative to the proportion (i.e., 52.7%) of websites mentioning it compared to other subject matter (e.g., Arabic, math) – ahead of only fine/visual arts. Overall, 17.1% of school websites mentioned PE dosage: 2.0 ± 0.5 days/week (elementary/middle schools) and 2.0 ± 1.0 credits (high school requirement). Overall, 18.0% of school websites mentioned their PE curriculum and 33.3% mentioned PE teachers by name—majorities were female (54.5%) and Muslim (73.6%). Overall, 23.9% of school websites mentioned PA facilities and 21.6% included at least one PA image on their homepage (Mdn = 1.0 ± 2.0 images/homepage). Overall, 29.3% of school websites mentioned intramurals (Mdn = 2.0 ± 2.0 activities listed/school when a school mentioned any), and 21.2% mentioned interscholastic sports (n = 228 sports teams in all) representing 12 different sports (Mdn = 4.0 ± 4.0 sports teams/listing school).
Conclusions: Compared to four previous studies of charter, private, and Jewish schools, Islamic schools fell in the middle for the degree they promoted the analyzed characteristics. These results can guide the Council of Islamic Schools in North America (main accrediting body) in developing guidelines and best practices for promoting PA in Islamic schools.
Weight Status and Elementary School Students’ School-Day Physical Activity and Play Behaviors during Recess
Wenyi Wang1, University of Taipei; Yung-Ju Chen, Minot State University; Xiuye Xie, Missouri State University
Background/Purpose: Given the lack of studies on objectively measured school-day physical activity and recess physical activity in Taiwan, it is difficult for scholars to determine evidence-based interventions needed for promoting school-day physical activity to combat the obesity crisis in elementary schools. Thus, the purpose of the study was to investigate Taiwanese elementary school students’ school-day physical activity and play behavior during recess. In addition, the researchers were interested in understanding whether children with different weight statuses engage in different physical activities and play behavior during recess, as recess provides great opportunities for children to engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during the school day.
Method: The study included 185 elementary school students (first to sixth grades; 19-42 per grade) from an elementary school in Taiwan. Accelerometers (ActiGraph wGT3X-BT) were used to collect students’ 5-day school-day physical activity data. The System for Observing Children’s Activity and Relationships during Play (SOCARP) was adopted for capturing children’s physical activity, social group sizes, activity type, and social behavior during recess. The inter-coder agreement between the two coders reached 89%. Students’ weight and height were also measured to understand their weight status and further compare physical activity patterns among students with different weight statuses. Descriptive statistics were calculated to understand the naturalism of elementary school students’ school-day physical activity and behavioral patterns during recess. ANOVAs were conducted to examine the group (weight status – underweight, typical weight, overweight, and obese) differences in children’s physical activity and play behaviors at recess.
Analysis/Results: On average, first and second grades spent 288 minutes (4.8hr), third and fourth grades spent 384 minutes (6.4hr), and fifth and sixth grades spent 432 minutes (7.2hr) in school per school day. Across grades, 64.14-84.07% of the school day was spent in sedentary behavior, 7.63-29.15% in light physical activity, and 5.62-8.27% in MVPA. Therefore, none of the grades achieved the CDC-recommended amount of MVPA (i.e., 60 minutes per day) during the school day. At recess, children across weight status were stationary for 36.40-42.63% of the time, stayed in small groups for 24.35-47.23% of the time, participated in locomotion for 34.22.66-43.60% of the time, and engaged in no social interaction for 84.17-95.47% of the time. ANOVAs revealed that (1) obese children were more likely to be alone during recess compared to any other weight status group (p < .05), (2) underweight students spent significantly more recess time participating in competitive sports than any other weight status group (p < .05), (3) obese students were more often to be observed engaging in physical conflicts compared to any other weight status group (p < .05).
Conclusions: Elementary school students in Taiwan are extremely sedentary during the school day and recess, regardless of grade level. Increasing time in MVPA during recess can potentially increase students’ overall school-day MVPA. Elementary schools can introduce individual and small-group physical activities that provide MVPA and involve prosocial interactions to promote students’ MVPA during recess.
What’s Going on with Physical Activity During Recess After Lunch?
Marissa Schulke1, Ariana Wolfe, Kylie Wilson, Kahyun Nam, Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Allison Poulos, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: This study was conceptualized under the model of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) which includes recess as a core component and scheduling recess before lunch is a recommended best practice. Emerging research indicates that placing recess before lunch is associated with better weight regulation and increased “healthful” food consumption in elementary-aged students. Despite this, there is little existing literature identifying effects on physical activity. To continue the conversation on the impact of this timing on students’ health, particularly because the majority of elementary schools in Arizona offer lunch before recess, the purpose of this study was to obtain objective physical activity levels during recess for students who consumed lunch immediately prior to recess and compare findings to key studies published on this topic.
Method: This cross-sectional, exploratory research included students in grades 3 to 6 attending 14 public elementary schools in Arizona (USA, N = 78). Students were asked to wear an ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer on their non-dominant wrist to assess levels of physical activity during recess following lunch. Accelerometer data was processed using ActiLife software using Crouter (2015) cut points for youth. Proportions of physical activity levels were averaged overall and by gender, and converted to minutes using the average length of recesses across the 14 schools (M = 21 minutes, SD = 4 minutes).
Analysis/Results: Descriptive analyses including means and standard deviations for levels of physical activity were conducted across all grade levels and by gender. Boys and girls were equally represented within the sample, and third and fourth grade students accounted for a majority of the sample size (44% and 31%, respectively). Across all genders and grade levels, children were sedentary 37% (8 minutes) of the time and engaged in light physical activity, like walking, 29% (6 minutes) of the time during lunch recess. The average proportion spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity (MVPA) was 35% (7 minutes), which is more than prior estimates of 28% when recess occurs after lunch.
Conclusions: Our results provide a descriptive overview of physical activity levels during recess immediately following lunch in elementary schools. Average MVPA among students in this study was approximately 7% greater when compared to other studies among students with recess scheduled before lunch. Given the calls to action to move recess before lunch, more studies on comparing students’ physical activity levels during recess are necessary to best inform scheduling and policy decisions. Additionally, researchers reporting students’ physical activity levels during lunch recess should explicitly state whether recess was before or after lunch to provide a deeper understanding of how timing may influence children’s health.
Sociocultural & Social Justice
Examining Physical Education Teachers’ Culturally Pluralistic Attitudes
Stacy Imagbe1, Morehouse College; Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) teachers must adapt educational opportunities to meet the needs of the increasingly culturally diverse students in K-12 schools. Culturally relevant physical education (CRPE) is believed to support all students in achieving success regardless of their race, ethnicity, religion, language, or social class. The purpose of this study was to examine PE teachers’ cultural pluralistic attitudes and identify group differences across sociodemographic factors.
Method: Teachers who were members of a state professional organization were invited to participate in this survey study. The final sample consisted of 88 in-service physical educators (males: n = 14, females: n = 74; White: n=68, Non-White: n=20; elementary school: n = 43, secondary school: n = 45; urban: n = 26, suburban: n =38, rural: n = 24). The PE teachers completed the validated Pluralism and Diversity Attitude Assessment (PADAA) survey and reported their sociodemographic data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were conducted to identify the potential group differences by gender, race, age, educational attainment, teaching experience, school level taught, school locale, SES level, and diversity of school.
Analysis/Results: MANOVA revealed significant difference in teachers’ culturally pluralistic attitudes for the subscale of value cultural pluralism by school level (F1, 86 = 4.31, p = 0.04, ηp2 = 0.05), favoring secondary school level teachers. No other significant differences were observed (p > 0.05), although we identified mean differences by race and gender. Specifically, White teachers reported higher scores for appreciation of ideals of cultural pluralism than non-White teachers (Cohen’s d = 0.18) and higher scores for uncomfortable with diversity than non-White teachers (Cohen’s d = 0.48); while Non-White teachers reported higher scores for value of ideals of cultural pluralism than White teachers (Cohen’s d = 0.43) and reported higher scores for implementing the ideals of cultural pluralism than White teachers (Cohen’s d = 0.69). Furthermore, male teachers reported higher scores for appreciation of ideals of cultural pluralism (Cohen’s d = 0.18) and higher scores for value of ideals of cultural pluralism than female teachers (Cohen’s d = 0.43); while female teachers reported higher scores for implementing the ideals of cultural pluralism (Cohen’s d = 0.69) and reported higher scores for uncomfortable with diversity than male teachers (Cohen’s d = 0.48).
Conclusions: PE teachers showed mostly similar culturally pluralistic attitudes, regardless of sociodemographic groups, although secondary school level teachers significantly valued cultural pluralism more than elementary school teachers. The findings of this study bear meaningful theoretical and practical implications for future culturally pluralistic interventions. Cultural pluralism is dynamic instructional practice that can be improved across populations through culturally tailored physical education teacher education curricula and experience as well as in-service professional development.
Examining the Physical and Social-Emotional Wellbeing of Native Hawaiian Youth
Crystal Hafoka1, Erin E. CenteioF, Shoshana Cohen, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Alethea Ku`ulei Serna, University of Hawaii at Manoa College of Education
Background/Purpose: Physical, social, emotional and academic inequities are faced by youth across the nation. This is especially true in Hawaii where Native Hawaiian (NH) youth have lower test scores, higher absenteeism, and lower college enrollment rates than their peers, along with greater physical and social-emotional health disparities than other ethnic groups in the islands. While several school-based interventions have successfully modified school environments to improve health-related behaviors in children, few have taken NH culture into account throughout intervention development. Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between physical activity, healthy eating behaviors, social-emotional health and wellbeing, and classroom belonging in order to provide insight into the need for culturally responsive programming among schools that have a high population of NH youth.
Method: As part of the I Pa’a Ka Huewai Pawehe project, which is guided by the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model and the Nā Hopena A’o framework, 1349 middle and high school students (57% male; 50.5% NH) participated in a survey that ask questions about physical, social and emotional health. Preliminary data analysis included demographic variables (age, sex, school, grade and ethnicity), validated scales on social support for physical activity (Duncan et al. 2005), physical activity enjoyment (Moore et al. 2009), classroom belonging and emotional regulation (Panorama, 2014). Additionally, questions about eating behaviors, screentime, physical activity breaks in school, depression, anxiety, and stress (YRBS, 2021) were also included.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics and a series of regressions were run to better understand the relationship of physical, social, and emotional wellbeing variables among youth in Hawaii. The first set of regressions examined if attitude towards eating fruit, vegetables, and healthy snacks impacted fruit and vegetable intake. Both fruit [F(7,744) = 6.06, p<.001,Adj. R2 = 0.05] and vegetable [F(7,744) = 20.47, p<.001,Adj. R2 = 0.16] intake were significantly predicted, when controlling for age, sex, school, grade, and ethnicity. The second regression sought to understand if classroom PA breaks, screentime, and physical activity social support predicted youth physical activity participation. Youth PA participation was significantly predicted by the above variables even when controlling for age, sex, school, grade, and ethnicity [F(12,316) = 12.96, p<.001,Adj. R2 = 0.31]. The third and final regression examined the relationship between anxiety, depression, stress, and emotional regulation on classroom belonging. It was found that classroom belonging was significantly predicted by the above variables [F(8,677) = 42.38, p<.001,Adj. R2 = 0.33], even when controlling for age, sex, school, grade, and ethnicity. Relationships and regressions will be discussed in detail for the purpose of the presentation.
Conclusions: There is a great need to create culturally relevant programming that targets health and wellness for youth and especially for Native Hawaiian youth. Understanding the relationship of physical, social, and emotional wellbeing of students is important as it can help guide intervention strategies and help make targeted improvements across programming.
Physical Educators’ Attitudes Toward Fatness: A Contemporary, Multidimensional, Non-stigmatizing Assessment
Luciana Zuest1, Towson University; Janaina Fogaça, California State University, Long Beach; Morgan Doolin, Towson University; Saemi Lee, California State University, Los Angeles; Dawn Clifford, Northern Arizona University
Background/Purpose: While anti-fat attitudes among physical educators are well documented, the instruments used in previous studies focus on negative aspects of fatness and fat individuals, reinforcing stereotypes and contributing to weight stigma. In 2022, Cain and colleagues introduced the Fat Attitudes Assessment Toolkit (FAAT), a novel instrument designed to address the limitations of previous anti-fat measurements and provide a more nuanced, multidimensional, and contemporary assessment of attitudes toward fatness and fat people. This study used the FAAT to examine physical educators’ attitudes toward fatness and fat individuals.
Method: Participants were 217 physical educators, including physical education students, K-12 teachers, and college professors. Participants completed the FAAT online, which includes nine subscales, and demonstrated strong psychometric properties and validity in previous studies. Five of these subscales form the composite score of fat acceptance, and two of them form the composite score of attribution complexity. Higher scores indicate higher fat acceptance and complexity in their attributions to explain fatness. Participants also responded to demographic questions.
Analysis/Results: An independent t-test revealed that women scored significantly higher in fat acceptance (m = 5.35, sd = 0.88) compared to men (m = 4.64, sd = 1.08), t(210) = 5.23, p < .001, d = 0.74. Furthermore, women exhibited significantly higher attribution complexity scores (m = 6.05, sd= 0.91) compared to men (m = 5.65, sd = 1.13), t(139.4) = 2.67, p = .004, d = 0.40. A One-Way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc analysis comparing fat acceptance among students, K-12 teachers, and college professors yielded no significant differences, F(2,209) = 1.10, p = .334. Similarly, a One-Way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc analysis was utilized to compare participants according to their desires regarding weight loss or gain. Intriguingly, significant differences were observed among all subgroups. Participants desiring weight loss had an average score of 5.31 (sd = 0.87), those wanting weight maintenance averaged 4.92 (sd = 0.95), and those desiring weight gain averaged 4.16 (sd = 1.66), F(2,212) = 11.12, p < .001, η2 = .095. Pairwise post-hoc comparisons indicated that individuals seeking weight loss exhibited significantly higher fat acceptance than those seeking weight maintenance (mean difference 0.38, p = .02) and weight gain (mean difference 1.15, p < .001). Additionally, participants aiming for weight maintenance displayed significantly higher fat acceptance than those desiring weight gain, with a mean difference of 0.76 (p = .02).
Conclusions: This study utilized the FAAT measurement to investigate physical educators’ attitudes toward fatness and fat individuals. The FAAT offers a contemporary and nuanced assessment, addressing the limitations of previous measures. Findings from 217 participants (college students, K-12 teachers, and professors) revealed higher fat acceptance among women compared to men. Additionally, individuals desiring weight loss or maintenance exhibited greater fat acceptance. These results emphasize the significance of addressing weight stigma in physical education.
Silenced Voices Heard: Exploring International East-Asian Kinesiology Doctoral Student Experiences
Seungyeon Park, Norfolk State University; Mijoo Kim, Towson University; Samuel R. Hodge, The Ohio State University
Background/Purpose: Critical race theory seeks to counter oppressive aspects of society and invoke individual transformation to restore individual justice. However, it often neglects to address Asian experiences. Centering Asian stories through Asian critical race theory (AsianCrit) can expand theory and practice in education. Asian teachers are underrepresented in schools, and rarely appear in research about teachers of color (Rodríguez, 2019). There is a lack of research in education that applies AsianCrit, particularly with a focus on faculty voices. This gap is even greater in the field of kinesiology. Thus, the purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the meanings East-Asian international kinesiology faculty ascribe to their academic and social experiences in kinesiology doctoral programs in the U.S., along with the comparisons they drew between their doctoral degree and faculty experiences.
Method: Employing the theoretical framework of AsianCrit and a multiple case study design, data were collected through demographic questionnaires and focused interviews with six international East-Asian faculty who recently completed doctoral degrees in kinesiology at higher education institutions in the U.S.
Analysis/Results: Thematic analysis was used with AsianCrit to guide the coding of the data. Overall, participants attributed their challenges to language barriers and cultural differences, essentially their position as non-native English speakers and international students, rather than along racial lines as Asians. They often felt disadvantaged because of lack of social and cultural capital with fewer relationships to support their academic and scholarly success. Moreover, they felt their intellect was judged based on their English proficiency, and particularly, by how well they displayed their knowledge by orally articulating their ideas. They attributed their isolation in both their doctoral programs and faculty departments to speaking English as a second language and completing most of their schooling outside the U.S. Moreover, participants indicated they were positioned as perpetual foreigners and unwelcome outsiders even more so as faculty members than when they were students because of restricted job opportunities and a sense of instability related to their visa status (Hsieh & Kim, 2020; Museus & Iftikar, 2014). Although they had acquired institutionalized cultural capital through their doctoral degrees and titles, participants did not feel a sense of collective identity in their U.S. higher education institutes, and their accents as non-native English speakers positioned them with less embodied cultural capital in their academic contexts (Bourdieu, 1986).
Conclusions: This study contributes to the limited literature on Asian educators in the U.S., who are both underrepresented in schools and research (Rodríguez, 2019). Moreover, this study expands research applying AsianCrit to international faculty members, and in the field of kinesiology where there is even less research. This study contributes new insights on the Asian international experience in the U.S., which overlaps with research on Asian Americans, with distinctions due to different language and cultural influences. It is crucial to consider the lived experiences of international Asian kinesiology faculty and students who may be positioned as outsiders with minimal visibility. This can empower their voices and confront racial inequality, oppression, and exclusion (Liu, 2009).
“You Are Welcome”: Adult Support Predicts Belonging at Recess
Jim P. Arnold1, Oregon State University; Danielle J Belcher, University of Northern Colorado; Nazlı Özkoca, Oregon State University; Megan Babkes Stellino, University of Northern Colorado; William V. Massey, Oregon State University
Background/Purpose: While recess may provide an opportunity for child development (Hodges et al., 2022; Massey et al., 2021, SHAPE, 2017), it can also be a context where violent and anti-social behavior occurs (Massey et al., 2017). Researchers have documented negative consequences of playground victimization for children, such as loneliness and social isolation (McNamara et al., 2017), feelings which the pandemic has exacerbated over the past three years. As children return to ‘normal’ school practices without health mitigation procedures (e.g., mask mandates, virtual learning), recess experiences remain a critical area of inquiry with implications for children’s long-term social, emotional, and physical health (Massey et al., 2022). The purpose of this study was to examine children’s reports about feeling unwelcome or uncomfortable at recess and identification of contributing explanatory variables.
Method: Data were collected at four time points at nine elementary schools in a large metropolitan school district. Students (N = 1,021) were in third (3.9%), fourth (50.6%), and fifth grades (45.1%) and identified as male (48.5%), female (41.6%) and gender non-conforming (9.1%). Racial identities were collapsed into four major categories that included Black/African American (22.2%), Hispanic (21.4%), White/Caucasian (19%), and all other responses (37.4%). Participants attended schools that received support from Playworks, a national non-profit recess organization. Data were collected via survey questions that solicited students’ perceptions of adult support and if they felt unwelcome or uncomfortable at recess based on eight variables.
Generalized linear mixed-effects models with appropriate random effects to account for the data’s structure (i.e., students nested within schools) using binary logistic regression were used to evaluate the longitudinal relationships between feeling unwelcome/uncomfortable at recess and student level covariates. Within the model, a dichotomous unwelcome/uncomfortable at recess variable was used as the dependent variable with gender, race, grade, and perceptions of adult support serving as independent variables, while including random effects for school.
Analysis/Results: The odds of feeling unwelcome/uncomfortable at recess significantly decreased over time, with 53.2% of the sample reporting feeling unwelcome at T1, 44.9% at T2 (OR= 0.759; 95% CI 0.616, 0.937), 43.9% at T3 (OR= 0.772; 95% CI 0.625, 0.952), and 40.1% at T4 (OR= 0.605, 95% CI 0.487, 0.752). Gender identity was a significant predictor, with girls (OR= 1.289, 95% CI 1.094, 1.518) and non-gender conforming students (OR= 1.425, 95% CI 1.084, 1.874) more likely to report feeling unwelcome/uncomfortable at recess. Adult support also predicted feeling unwelcome/uncomfortable, with reportedly higher perceptions of adult support having lower odds of feeling unwelcome/uncomfortable (OR= 0.750, 95% CI 0.697, 0.807). Race and grade level were not significant predictors.
Conclusions: Adult support at recess is critical to student reports of an inclusive environment, and particularly important for those who identified as female and gender non-conforming. Girls were 28.9% more likely than boys to report feeling unwelcome/uncomfortable at recess, whereas gender non-conforming students were 42.5% more likely. These odds were reduced by 25% with increased perceptions of adult support. Findings suggest a critical need for schools to invest in training and professional development for adults facilitating daily recess.
Sport & Coaching
Just Like Mom/Dad: Family Influence on School Sports Participation
Beth Canfield-Simbro1, University of Mount Union
Background/Purpose: Families can either be a driver to or away from youth participation in sports. This study explored how family influences participation of youth in a Midwestern economically disadvantaged community. Findings indicate family factors like child’s gender, SES, youth caregiving responsibilities, parental sports experiences, and parental sports culture affect attitudes about and participation in school sports in middle and high school. Ideas for how districts and schools can increase youth participation will be shared.
In this case study of one midwestern public high school, our team sought to understand how success of girls’ and boys’ school sports programs, measured by student participation, stakeholder perceptions of sports programs, and win-loss records. This proposal will focus on data collected around family involvement in and support of school sports in this community, where 70% of youth are classified as economically disadvantaged.
Method: Partnering with our local school district, we collected and analyzed two sets of data. The first data set consisted of team level data including student participation numbers, number of coaches, incoming booster funds, student/coach ratio, affiliated local or regional youth sports programs, and whether policy required administrative attendance at contests. The second set of data included stakeholder surveys and interviews. We analyzed 521 surveys from students in grades 6 to 12 and 101 surveys from administrators, staff, and coaches. Additional data included 26 in-depth interviews with stakeholders.
Analysis/Results: Parent sports participation and parent education level had positive relationships with student sports participation. Qualitative themes centering around family, such as child’s gender, SES, youth caregiving responsibilities, parental sports experiences, and parental sports culture, that emerged will be discussed.
Conclusions: Families are extremely influential in youth participation in school sports. Ideas for how districts and schools can increase youth participation by partnering with families will be shared.
Light Weight … Yeah Buddy! A Comparison of High School and Collegiate Powerlifters
Anthony M. Rogers Jr. 1, Lorraine Killion, Texas A&M – Kingsville
Background/Purpose: The first powerlifting national open tournament was held in 1964 in Pennsylvania with 38 competitors across seven weight classes and no female competitors (York Dispatch, 2019). The first women’s world championships took place 16 years later in Massachusetts in 1980. The expansion has made way for 11 weight classes for females and 12 for males. Powerlifting has exploded to over 700 participants competing at the equipped nationals and 1142 participants registered for raw nationals in 2023, illustrating exponential growth of a 1,755% increase in competition over the 59 years of existence. Powerlifting is a sport of relative and absolute maximal strength and includes three events: the squat, the bench press, and the deadlift. Competitors have three attempts in each of the three events to lift a maximal load in a single repetition (Ferland & Comtois, 2019). A One Repetition Maximum (1RM) is the maximum amount of weight a person can lift at once (Edgerton, 1976). There are two styles of powerlifting: Raw and Equipped. Equipped lifting involves the use of special gear, such as suits for squatting while raw does not (Kozub & Brusseau, 2012). The Texas High School Powerlifting Association (THSPA, http://www.thspa.us/) and the United States of America Powerlifting Organization (USAPL, www.usapowerlifting.com) identifies all gear that meet the guidelines during competition. To date, no study has examined the strength gained from high school to collegiate powerlifting. The purpose of this study was to compare the differences between raw squat and equipped squat in high school and collegiate powerlifters.
Method: Upon IRB approval, parent consent and student assent forms were collected from the high school participants and consent was affirmed via an online survey designed through Qualtrics for collegiate powerlifters.
Analysis/Results: A total of 200 (N=51; girls=19, boys=32) high school powerlifters and (N=149; females= 71, males= 78) collegiate powerlifters completed the survey. Paired sample t-tests were conducted to compare the female raw/equipped and male raw/equipped for powerlifters. Results for females yielded (H.S. Raw: M=178.68 lbs.; SD=53.25; College Raw: M=265.68 lbs.; SD=75.84) and for males (H.S. Raw: M=396.87 lbs.; SD=106.14; College Raw: M=522.37 lbs.; SD=112.66). Equipped results for females yielded (H.S. Equipped: M=221.84 lbs.; SD=65.55; College Equipped: M=361.84 lbs.; SD=87.86) and for males (H.S. Equipped: M=465.94 lbs.; SD=129.68; College Equipped: M=659.31 lbs.; SD=135.80). A significant difference (p<.001) was reported across all categories. Results revealed high school powerlifters lift 20.75% more when equipped than raw, while collegiate athletes showed an increase of 28.4%.
Conclusions: This difference of 7.65% demonstrates a continued gain in potential strength from high school to college. The data indicates the dominating factor is the suit, regardless the level of competition; therefore, athletes and coaches should be aware that the investment of a suit means more weight lifted. There is a paucity of evidence on this growing field which solicits future studies. Both high school and collegiate athletes and their coaches are deserving of research to further advance the sport.
The Concerns of Catachreses on Coaching Orientation in PETE Literature
Han-Earl Lim1, West Virginia University; Wonhee Lee, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: The terms ‘coaching orientation’ or ‘coaching-oriented,’ often appear in the physical education teacher education (PETE) research field literature. These terms are normally used negatively to indicate the students who do not accept physical education (PE) knowledge and theories in their PETE programs and non-teaching PE teachers who only roll a ball in their class. Words such as ‘dark side’ and ‘life of non-teaching’ are often associated with the terms. However, from the perspective of coaching research, it is questionable whether the use of such terms is appropriate. This is because coaching research has been evolving toward expanding the educational possibilities of coaching. Therefore, this study aims to critically analyze the origins and contexts of the term ‘coaching orientation’ as it appears in PETE research, and to identify its problems and suggestions.
Method: This study will employ a literature review method to analyze the term ‘coaching orientation’ in the context of PETE research. A comprehensive search of relevant academic databases will be conducted to identify key articles and works. Focus will be placed on the term’s origins, contexts, and implications. The analysis aims to critically evaluate the term’s appropriateness in PETE literature, uncovering its potential problems and proposing suggestions for more suitable terminology or conceptual framing.
Analysis/Results: Through a detailed analysis of the literature, four distinct problems associated with the catachreses of ‘coaching orientation’ in the field of PETE research were identified. Firstly, an invalid spectrum was made, positioning coaching and teaching at opposite ends and resulting in coaching being negatively perceived as un-educational and less professional, while teaching is viewed as the superior and more professional approach. Secondly, the catachreses can misguide the contexts where coaching orientation came from. Originally, the term highlighted structural problems such as PE teachers’ role conflict, but some scholars shifted the blame from the system to individual teachers, arguing that some neglect their lessons due to a coaching orientation, not because of the system-induced role conflicts. Thirdly, it causes concern about the risk of creating exclusivity within PETE programs; according to the Social Identity Theory, students may socially categorize themselves as either coaching or teaching-oriented, leading to alienation and low commitment from coaching-oriented students who feel excluded from the programs. Finally, the use of the term can inappropriately represent coaches as educators, negating the pedagogical coaching aspects of great coaches who are realizing educational value.
Conclusions: The results of this study challenge the existing catachreses of ‘coaching orientation’ in PETE research and advocate for a more reflective and accurate terminology. Two future research topics related to the results are suggested. First, there is a need for research to reconceptualize the individual concepts of coaching and teaching, and their relationship, which is expected to provide an alternative picture to the existing spectrum that positions coaching and teaching at opposite ends. Secondly, research is required to propose solutions to structural problems, including PE teachers’ dual role requirement, which was the original reason for the emergence of this term.
The Effects of Badminton Club Members’ Self-Identity and Ego-Resilience on Interpersonal Relationships
Cheolho Lim1, University of South Carolina; Jongjin Park, Chungbuk National University
Background/Purpose: Interpersonal relationships are the ability to develop relationships by understanding others’ emotions and behaviors. This is kind of psycho-social factors with other members of society. Many people in modern society experience difficulties with interpersonal relationships regardless of gender or age. Self-identity and Ego-resilience can positively influence interpersonal relationships. Sports have characteristics that contribute to the maintenance of mental and physical health, as well as social well-being. Additionally, it is also reported that playing sports promotes a healthy and positive mindset and notably contributes to sustaining psycho-social factors like resilience, interpersonal relationships, and increased self-resilience. Based on this, a plan to sport for all to solve interpersonal problems is suggested. Previous studies have been focused on professional athletes, such as kinematic analysis, sports confidence, and performance analysis, which mainly focus on improving the performance of elite athletes. Therefore, there are not enough studies to understand the effect of sport participation at the recreational level. The purpose of the current study was to examine the self-identity, ego-resilience, and interpersonal relationships and to investigate the influence of self-identity and ego-resilience on interpersonal relationships of people participating in recreational sports.
Method: A total of 259 badminton club members (male 57.1%, female 42.9%) in South Korea participated in the survey asking about self-identity, ego-resilience, and interpersonal relationships. Participants consisted of adults with less than two years to over five years participated in this study.
Analysis/Results: Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among measured variables. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to verify the influence of self-identity and self-resilience on interpersonal relationships. There were statistically significant relationships among the variables in both global and subdomain levels (p < .001) except for a few subdomains in self-identity and ego-resilience (i.e., anger management, first-time relationships, dealing with interpersonal conflicts, and self-exposure). Second, among the factors of self-identity, ‘subjectivity,’ ‘future certainty,’ and ‘self-acceptance’ significantly predicted ‘emotional support and advice’, and ‘claiming displeasure’ factors in interpersonal relationships. ‘Anger control’ and ‘optimism’ in ego-resilience significantly predicted ‘first-time relationship’ factor in interpersonal relationships. However, the sub-factor of self-identity, particularly ‘intimacy,’ negatively influenced all sub-factors in interpersonal relationships. The ‘confidence,’ a sub-factor of ego-resilience, had negative influence on all interpersonal relationships sub-factors except ‘self-exposure,’
Conclusions: The higher levels of subjectivity, future certainty, and self-acceptance are associated with improved interpersonal relationships among the badminton club members. Furthermore, high levels of anger control and optimism were correlated with enhanced interpersonal relationships. Providing opportunities to improve above mentioned components of self-identity and ego-resilience through the context of recreational sports will benefit people to increase their interpersonal relationships. On the contrary, certain factors demonstrate it is important to manage factors that may have negative implications on interpersonal relationships to ensure the maintenance of positive impact of recreation sports participation. Therefore, there is a necessity for training methods to improve sports participants’ self-identity and ego-resilience that can enhance interpersonal relationships as well as technical skills.
Teaching & Learning
A Case Analysis of Experiential Learning Reflection: The Civic Responsibility Impact of Sport, Recreation, and Physical Activity Service-Learning Events
Christopher M. Keshock1, Mitchell Woltring, Brooke Forester, University of South Alabama
Background/Purpose: Efforts to further understand how sport, recreation, and physical activity teachers can best utilize experiential learning to enhance scholarship continue as an area of investigation. The integration of out-of-classroom activities in the form of service learning may allow students to be more individually driven to understand course concepts, develop a more profound knowledge of industry constructs, appreciate civic responsibility, and possibly possess a more marketable skill set when pursuing future employment upon graduation (Sotiriadou, 2011). In an attempt to understand which community-based sport and recreation event service-learning activities impact social enrichment, personal growth, increased knowledge, and a sense of community an analysis of sport and recreation administration students (N=1,802) and the preferences college students had toward their service-learning experiences was examined over 18 years.
Method: A mixed-method approach was used with a modified Student Service-Learning Course Survey (Wang, 2005) consisting of 22 closed-end 5-point Likert-scale response questions and 6 open-ended questions administered at the end of each semester.
Analysis/Results: Cross-tabulations of data were conducted to determine which events carried greater influence on service learning outcome areas. Sense of community or the civic responsibility component resulted in a high impact factor with youth sporting events in comparison to professional and intercollegiate sporting events, adult competitions, and other types of recreation and leisure activities.
Conclusions: To build social responsibility in students and meet institutional effectiveness related to community engagement goals sport, physical education, and recreation service-learning activities related to and in the form of contiguous youth sporting events may be an option worth consideration by teachers utilizing experiential learning methodologies.
A Study of The Correlation Between PE Teachers’ Content Knowledge and Teacher Caring
Lu Jiachen1, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: Content knowledge (CK) determines the effectiveness of teaching. Teachers with a high level of CK can set appropriate and diversified tasks and activities for students, so that students can develop in diversity, which enhances teachers’ teaching decisions. Teacher caring behavior has a positive effect on students’ academic achievement, self-efficacy, and psychological performance (Huang Jianhong, 2017). The purpose of this study is to understand the current situation of CK and teacher caring of high school sports badminton teachers, and to explore the relationship between the two.
Method: 110 PE teachers (74 males and 36 females) were researched on badminton CK and teacher caring behaviors. CK is divided into CCK and SCK, while teacher caring behavior includes three dimensions: conscientiousness, support and inclusiveness and the data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, and correlation analysis.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistical results showed that only 49.1% (54) of high school PE teachers’ badminton CCK reached the qualified standard, and the mean of SCK was 2.47. The number of teachers who achieved excellent in inclusiveness was the highest (=23%), followed by the number of teachers who achieved excellent in conscientiousness (=19.5%), and only (=16.1%) in support. One-way ANOVA showed that educational background (P=0.030*<0.05) had a significant effect on teachers’ caring behavior, while professional title (P=0.062>0.05) had no significant effect. Pearson correlation analysis showed that there was a weak positive correlation between CCK and teacher caring behavior (r=0.226, P=0.035<0.05) and no correlation between SCK and teacher caring behavior (P=0.576>0.05).
Conclusions: The overall level of badminton CK of high school PE teachers is average, they lack structural knowledge and the ability to use knowledge, and the degree of mastery in motor skills of the students needs to be improved. Whereas the overall level of teacher caring behavior is good, the improvement of PE teachers’ CCK has an impact on teacher caring, and changes in SCK don’t have any impact on teacher caring. Therefore, in the future, it is necessary to pay attention to the PE teachers’ ability to use structural teaching, and further strengthen the humanistic care consciousness of high school PE teachers.
Administrator Experiences with Physical Education Teachers and Programs
Cathy McKayF1, Eric Bowers, James Madison University
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to seek to understand and describe the experiences and perspectives of school administrators in relation to physical education teachers and physical education programs. Research conducted by Rizzo (2019) related to principals’ intentions to promote physical education found that principals can directly impact the success of the physical educator, as well as the quality of the program. Research also indicates that the school culture for physical educators may be improved if principals support and promote quality physical education (Bechtel & O’Sullivan, 2007).
Method: To explore how administrators made sense of their experiences with physical education teachers and physical education programs, this qualitative study utilized a phenomenological approach. Participants were nine school administrators (33% female; 67% male; 5-23 years administration experience) serving in leadership roles in public schools in Virginia. Data for this study were collected in the form of reflective writing responses and individual follow-up interviews. Writing responses included three demographic questions and five short answer questions, taking an average of fifteen minutes to complete. Writing responses were completed by all nine participants. Follow-up interviews were approximately twenty minutes long and were conducted over zoom. Once complete, the zoom interviews were transcribed into a word document. Follow-up interviews were completed by four of the nine participants. After data were collected, thematic development was undertaken inductively using a three-step analytic process: immersion in the data, bracketing the data, and determining emergent themes.
Analysis/Results: Analysis revealed four themes related to the participants’ experiences with physical education teachers and physical education programs. In the first theme, “Our PE teachers are a very important part of our overall team”: Physical education teachers as team members, participants described the way physical education teachers acted as overall team players on the school faculty team, and the manner in which their visibility was important. The second theme, “Our PE teachers are vital to the health and wellness of the school”: Physical education teachers add value, concerned participants’ feelings of value and necessity in relation to physical education teachers and programming. The third theme, “Sometimes HPE teachers are in it to be a coach and teaching is secondary”: Negative experiences with physical education teachers and programs, dealt with the participants’ frustration with ineffective physical education teachers. Finally, the fourth theme, “You need to be visible”: Physical education teachers need to be visible to build relationships concerned the importance of being visible to build relationships throughout the school and community.
Conclusions: Based on these findings, administrators’ views and perceptions of physical education teachers and physical education programs are positive, and indicate experiences of teamwork, leadership, value to the overall school program, and joy. Negative experiences were minimal, however important to note in the overall data, as depicted in theme three. Future data should explore a larger cross-section of administrators from multiple states, seeking to understand and describe experiences across all educational levels, including elementary and secondary participants.
AI Training Amplifies Teacher Perceptions of AI and Health Education
Eric Conrad1, California State University, Stanislaus; Laura Rees, Parkview Middle School
Background/Purpose: Implementing best-practice recommendations in school health education (HE) and adhering to standards-based instruction often present distinct challenges. These are particularly evident among educators who lack specialized knowledge in HE or work in schools where HE instruction is not mandated. Common core subject teachers often list barriers to HE integration that include lack of training, time, support, and self-efficacy. Artificial intelligence (AI) tools offer promising solutions to overcome these barriers. However, educators might exhibit reluctance to adopt these technological resources unless they are presented with demonstrable benefits. Consequently, the objective of this study was to assess whether a one-hour AI training could positively influence the perceptions of teachers towards the use of supportive AI tools and the integration of HE standards into their curriculum.
Method: A group of 24 middle school teachers participated in a one-hour training focused on supportive AI. The session covered the AI introduction, benefits for integrating HE standards, a practical demonstration, and a period for queries and experimentation. To evaluate the training’s impact, a pre-post study design was implemented, capturing baseline data for comparison with post-training results. The evaluative questionnaire incorporated constructs from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), gauging teachers’ perceived tool usefulness (TAM-PU), ease of use (TAM-SE), self-efficacy (TAM-PE), complexity (TAM-PC), prior experience, and intentions to integrate AI (TAM-I). Constructs of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and intentions (INT) from TPB assessed perceptions of integrating HE standards. All constructs were rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Paired-sample t-tests analyzed significant mean differences from pre- to post-test, and participants also reported perceived AI benefits for teaching.
Analysis/Results: Results from the assessment indicated that the majority of teachers who attended the training did not have previous experience using AI technology (88%) or familiarity with HE standards (96%). Following the training, large and significant (<.05) increases in mean difference (MD) were observed for ATT (MD=2.35), PBC (MD=2.52), TAM-EU (MD=2.30), TAM-I (MD=2.43), TAM-SE (MD=2.50), and TAM-PU (MD=2.35). A smaller increase was seen for intentions to integrate HE (MD = 1.34). There was also a significant decrease in TAM-PC (MD=-2.65). Additionally, participants noted the advantages of AI implementation across various aspects of teaching such as curriculum development, pedagogical strategies, learning environment enhancement, assessment, and cross-disciplinary integration. They also indicated that AI tools notably reduced the labor demands associated with routine teaching tasks.
Conclusions: This study underscores the potential of AI tools in surmounting barriers to integrating HE into curriculum among untrained teachers. Teachers indicated AI could significantly improve their teaching in areas related to curriculum, instruction, assessment, and multi-subject integration. Significant increases in teachers’ reception towards AI and integration of HE standards, as well as a reduction in perceived complexity post-training suggest AI could enhance teaching efficacy and school HE, highlighting the promise of AI training in k-12 education.
Analyzing the Concerns and Potential of Integrating Sport into Physical Education
Han-Earl Lim1, West Virginia University; Yongjin Lee, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Daekyun Oh, St. Bonaventure University
Background/Purpose: Physical Education (PE) in the United States has been invariably associated with sport, seen as a critical medium to nurture physical skills and foster an active lifestyle among students. However, the conventional role of sport in PE is being increasingly scrutinized in contemporary discussions. Sport, in its current form, encountered critics that competitive elements could overshadow the broader objectives of PE, including holistic health promotion and the cultivation of lifelong fitness habits. They propose that the prominence of sport in PE should be mitigated to establish a more balanced and inclusive curriculum that addresses all students’ diverse needs and interests. Yet, entirely disassociating sport from PE could be precipitous. It risks disregarding the undeniable educational potential of sport and its deep-seated influence within the fabric of American society. Against this backdrop, our study seeks to critically analyze these concerns while exploring the potential for the thoughtful integration of sport into the PE curriculum.
Method: This study employs a critical literature review methodology. It delves into a comprehensive review of existing literature and evaluates the current debates surrounding the role of sport in PE. Our focus is twofold: (a) to understand the complexities involved in assimilating sport into the PE curriculum and (b) to contextualize this understanding within the cultural implications and the inherent educational potential of sport in American society.
Analysis/Results: Our analysis reveals that arguments favoring the elimination of sport from PE often draw a linkage with neoliberal values, thereby promoting a unidimensional critique of sport. These arguments, while emphasizing the drawbacks of sport, inadvertently underscore a significant issue - the incorporation of uncurricularized sport into PE. This highlights the pressing need for a curriculum-aligned approach to integrating sport into PE to effectively meet its educational objectives. Pedagogical models such as Sport Education and Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) are examples of such ‘curricularized’ sport. However, our findings suggest that a broader conceptualization of sport, defined as humanities-oriented sport or valued human practices, is necessary for facilitating holistic student development and inclusivity in PE. Hanaro Teaching, a pedagogical model in physical education that practically embodies Humanities-Oriented Physical Education, serves as a practical exemplar in the school context.
Conclusions: The sport currently contested in PE can be categorized as ‘commodified sport,’ reflective of capitalist and neoliberal value systems. Thus, the discourse should be focused on averting such commodified sport instead of eliminating sport altogether from PE, especially considering its far-reaching social influence and educational value. These arguments also substantiate the infusion of uncurricularized sport into PE, indicating the necessity of curriculum development that aligns with the fundamental goal of PE. Our study has explored the feasibility of this integration with the humanities-oriented approach. However, the urgency for further research to develop curricularized sport for their effective implementation in PE cannot be overstated. Neglecting this could result in losing the educational value of sport within PE, which would be a significant setback for this important domain of education.
Becoming a Reflective Practitioner: The Efficacy of a Training Program
Adam M. Wolecki1, Natalia D. Molska, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: It is important for training programs to effectively prepare participants for the contexts they are entering and the future challenges that they may face. Often training programs lack the time and resources to cater for the needs of the participants. Therefore, it is difficult but vital to make appropriate decisions on what content is included and excluded to form an effective training program. With time and resource constraints, previous research (Knowles et al., 2006) indicates that educating and encouraging participants to become reflective practitioners can aid in preparing future coaches to overcome challenges and increase the course delivery effectiveness. Reflection requires critical thinking and engagement (Griggs et al., 2016) where different experiences are deconstructed. However, Knowles et al (2001) acknowledged that our own understanding and knowledge can limit these skills. In addition, Triggs & Gilbourne (2014) indicated that proficient reflective practitioners are able to draw upon past experiences as reference markers, employing them to guide their choices and behaviors.
Purpose: This study aimed to assess the efficacy of a training program to train coaches to deliver projects in multiple settings. In addition, the second purpose of the study was to establish if implementations of reflective practice could improve the training course’s efficacy to help coaches be more effective.
Method: Eight participants were purposefully selected (4 female, 4 male). The participants attended the initial week-long training course, and priority was given to participants who delivered multiple projects. Purposive sampling recruited participants based on their experience of what was being researched (Creswell & Poth, 2016). Data were collected through semi-structured interviews (4 x 60min) and a focus group (1 x 90min).
Analysis/Results: Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019) through constant comparison and analytic induction (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984) was used to facilitate the emergence of extracting common categories and themes (Patton, 1990). Trustworthiness and credibility were ensured by data triangulation (Atkinson, 2012), crystallization (Tracy, 2010), members check and negative case analysis. The results highlighted four areas where reflective practices had helped or could help participants overcome challenges or better prepared them to deliver the project. These were: communication barriers, experiences of the participants, context the project was delivered in, and the pedagogy used to deliver the projects. Within communication barriers participants had challenges where the children “just weren’t understanding”, whilst the experiences of the participants showed using reflective techniques like a diary “help to relive it and then assess” so they could “improved on what you’ve learned”. The context participants delivered the project in highlighted the “cultural differences” and different societies having “broad spectrum of issues”. Finally, the pedagogy used was more to “developing people as humans” and issues of teaching the children “the way they were taught.”
Conclusions: This study demonstrated the effectiveness of being a reflective practitioner and the need for training programs to include reflective techniques like Schon’s (1983) and Edwards’ (2017) reflective paradigm, Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle, or Gibbs’ (1988) Reflective Cycle to help deconstruct and conceptualize experiences to enhance meaningful learning and to better prepare the participants.
Children’s Academic Learning Time in Physical Education: A Descriptive Study
Shu Cheng1, Kian Vanluyten, KU Leuven; Phillip WardF, The Ohio State University; Jan Seghers, KU Leuven; Tonghe Zhang, KU Leuven; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Academic learning time in physical education (ALT-PE) is the portion of engaged time when students engage in a subject matter motor activity that is appropriate to their ability and produces a high success rate (Siedentop et al., 1982). ALT-PE is a two-level system, examining context of the class (e.g., general and subject matter content) and learner involvement (e.g., motor appropriate behavior, off task). We investigated children’s motor appropriate behaviors during parkour (2nd grade) and team handball (3rd grade) physical education lessons by sex.
Method: A total of 24 children (12 girls) from six different elementary schools were taught a 10-lesson sport education season in parkour in grade 2 (mean age: 8 years) and team handball in grade 3 (mean age: 9 years) in physical education. Six physical education teachers received two separate 4-hour professional development workshops on how to teach parkour and team handball using the sport education model (Siedentop et al., 2020). The ALT-PE instrument (Siedentop et al., 1982) was used for collecting data by trained observers using momentary time sampling. Descriptive analysis was used to report the percentages of intervals spent in the different variables of the ALT-PE instrument in parkour and team handball lessons by sex.
Analysis/Results: For the context level, during parkour lessons, boys and girls both spent 47% (range 22%-74%) and 8% (range 1%-15%) of lesson time on skill practice and technique respectively. During team handball lessons, boys spent 7% (range 1%-18%) of lesson time on technique and 7% (range 1%-20%) on strategy, whereas girls spent 6% (range 1%-16%) and 8% (range 1%-19%) of lesson time on technique and strategy respectively. Both boys and girls spent 8% (range 1%-24%) and 33% (range 20%-44%) of lesson time on skill practice and scrimmage respectively. For the learner involvement level, boys and girls individually spent 37% (range 15%-61%) and 35% (range 18%-55%) of parkour lesson time on motor appropriate behaviors. While boys and girls spent 27% (range 19%-41%) and 26% (range 12%-37%) of team handball lesson time on motor appropriate behaviors respectively. Overall, no substantial sex differences were found in both parkour and team handball lessons.
Conclusions: Children’s motor appropriate behaviors in parkour and team handball physical education lessons in this study were lower compared to previous studies implemented in elementary school (Placek et al., 1982; Randall et al., 1989; Shute et al., 1982). Different content areas taught in physical education might affect children’s motor appropriate behaviors. Children had 10% more motor appropriate behavior in parkour compared to team handball. Future research should investigate what causes the differences in motor appropriate behaviors between content domains. In addition, it was the first time that teachers in this study taught parkour and team handball. Follow-up research should investigate how ALT-PE is affected after repeatedly teaching the same content.
Computational Thinking Integration in Pre-service Physical Education Teachers’ Assessment Learning
Xiaolu Liu, Rachel GurvitchF, Angela Carmon1, Yin-Chan Liao, Georgia State University
Background/Purpose: Assessment is crucial for effective physical education (PE) teaching and learning, yet many PE teachers still rely on limited traditional practices, lacking meaningful outcomes. Research reveals a deficit in PE teachers’ assessment literacy, necessitating improved preparation. Computational thinking (CT) involves problem-solving and analytical skills, including key common concepts such as decomposition, abstraction, pattern recognition, and algorithmic design. These CT concepts enhance student learning and problem-solving skills. However, integrating CT into physical education teacher education (PETE) remains unexplored. This study aims to investigate how CT concepts could impact pre-service PE teachers (PPETs)’ assessment learning through CT integration in an assessment course.
Method: This study utilized a constructive phenomenological approach to explore PPETs’ views of CT integration into their assessment learning. Using a convenient sampling strategy, among a total of six PPETs, two PPETs (one African American male and one White female) from an assessment course (assessment in health and physical education) at a public research university located in the southern district of the United States participated in the study. The assessment course was a 16-week class meeting twice weekly, focusing on preparing PPETs for assessment knowledge and skills. CT concepts were integrated into six class sections covering various assessment aspects (e.g., CT concepts in assessment in psychomotor, cognitive, and affective learning domains). Data were collected via online semi-structured interviews, student written assignments, and pre- and post-surveys. Data triangulation, peer debriefing, and member checking were applied to ensure the trustworthiness and credibility of the results.
Analysis/Results: Two researchers independently transcribed audio-recorded interviews and open-coded data to categorize substantial codes into themes with internal relations identified among all data sources. Four themes were constructed: (a) Positive learning experience: PPETs reported a favorable learning experience through the integration of CT concepts into the assessment course. (b) Enhanced learning through CT integration: PPETs utilized CT concepts effectively in their assessment learning. Decomposition aided in breaking down units, while algorithmic design facilitated step-by-step creation of assessment-based instructions. Pattern recognition was applied for data analysis, informing their teaching. (c) Technology-driven engagement: The integration of CT concepts motivated PPETs to employ diverse technologies in assessment, enhancing innovation and engagement. And (d) Challenges in CT-based assessment learning: PPETs highlighted certain challenges in their assessment learning through CT integration, such as limited depth in understanding CT concepts in the PE context.
Conclusions: Incorporating CT concepts into PETE appears as a viable approach to enhancing PPETs’ acquisition of assessment knowledge and skills. PPETs exhibited favorable attitudes toward learning CT concepts and effectively applied them in their assessment practices. Hence, PETE programs should consider the integration of CT concepts as part of the development of PPETs’ assessment literacy. This integration, ideally extended across the entire PETE curriculum and not limited to a single course, could effectively address the challenges and concerns expressed by PPETs. Further empirical research is needed to investigate the effectiveness of CT integration in teacher preparation and to ascertain its feasibility within PETE programs.
Early Career Physical Educators’ Job Satisfaction and Participation in Induction Programs
Jaehun Jung1, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater; Myung Ha Sur, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: School districts provide newly hired teachers with induction programs. Through mentorship, these programs are designed to help the newly hired teachers be more effective in their classrooms and get support in those most challenging years. Despite of these efforts, study results indicated that more than 40% of new teachers leave within the first five years of entry into teaching in the U.S., and physical educators may not be an exception. Job satisfaction can be a predictor of the physical educators’ decision to stay or leave the teaching profession. Also, participation in induction programs during their first year of teaching may improve job satisfaction, which may help them stay in the profession longer. However, limited quantitative approaches to examine the relationships between newly hired physical educators’ job satisfaction and the participation in the induction programs are available. Therefore, the purposes of this study were 1) to investigate newly hired physical educators’ job satisfaction and 2) to examine the relationship between the job satisfaction and the participation in induction programs.
Method: This study examined data from the 2020-2021 National Teacher and Principal Survey. The sample included 1,964 physical educators. Of the physical educators, 12.2% indicated that they started their teaching career after 2016 (less than 5 years of teaching experience). Among the survey items, items related to job satisfaction and participation in an induction program during the first year of teaching were selected to be analyzed. Descriptive statistics including percentage and confidence intervals were used to describe the newly hired physical educators’ job satisfaction. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between job satisfaction and the participation in induction programs. Teaching loads, gender, and age were used as covariates for the logistic regression.
Analysis/Results: Of the newly hired physical educators who participated in the induction programs during their first year, 90.2% (95% Confidence Interval [83.7 – 96.7]) reported that they are satisfied with being a teacher while only 74.3% (95% CI [58.9 – 89.7]) of the newly hired physical educators who have not participated in the induction during their first year reported that they are satisfied with being a teacher. The result from a logistic regression suggests that newly hired physical educators who participated in the induction programs during their first year were more likely to be satisfied with being a teacher than their counterparts who have not participated in the programs (OR = 4.85, 95% CI [1.47,16.05], p < .05).
Conclusions: This study suggests that there is a positive relation between newly hired physical educators’ job satisfaction and participation of induction programs. The higher likelihood of participating in induction programs may positively impact on higher job satisfaction. Future study may be needed to examine more details on the impact of the induction programs (e.g., intensity, frequency, and qualifications of mentors). Moving forward, it will be important that school districts should continue to provide effective induction programs, therefore the newly hired physical educators can continue to pursue their successful teaching careers.
Effects of Jump Rope Lessons on Physical and Executive Functions
YuChun Chen1, Western Kentucky University; Kaylee Woodard, Learnin’ the Ropes
Background/Purpose: According to recent government surveys, 19.3% of American children and adolescents are overweight or obese, and 5-10% have been diagnosed with ADHD, anxiety, or depression. Evidence shows that school-related physical activities can be effective for addressing these health crises. Previous research has implemented jump rope as a specific exercise or warm-up activity within physical education (PE) lessons. The current intervention aimed to evaluate the effects of freestyle jump rope techniques taught as a cohesive unit via traditional and video-based instructional modalities.
Method: Eight third and fourth grade classes participated in this eight-lesson jump rope study. Three classes (43 students) in the video-led (VID) group learned from instructional videos created by professional jump rope athletes. The videos were projected on a screen in the gym by PE teachers. Another three classes (43 students) in the teacher-led (TEA) group learned the same skills from the PE teachers face-to-face in the same physical space. Two classes (23 students) in the control (CON) group participated in regular PE. Standard 30-sec jump, criss cross, 5-10-5 shuttle run, standing balance, and Stroop tests were conducted before and after the intervention. Heart rate was recorded throughout each lesson, and perceived enjoyment was assessed after lessons 2, 5, and 8.
Analysis/Results: All data were compared across groups and timepoints using repeated-measures ANCOVAs, controlling for school and grade. Scores for 30-sec jump, criss cross, agility, and balance were analyzed across two timepoints (pre- and post-test). Results showed significant time by group interactions for 30-sec jumps, criss crosses, and the “color-word” Stroop condition. In the 30-sec jump test, the TEA and VID groups had greater improvement from pre- to post-tests compared to CON. The TEA and VID groups also showed significant improvement in the criss cross and “color-word” tests, whereas the CON group showed no change. There was a marginally significant time x group interaction for agility indicating a significant improvement for the TEA group and no change for VID or CON groups. The percentage of time spent in MVPA was averaged and analyzed across four sets of two lessons. Analysis revealed significant main effects for group and time. TEA and CON groups had a higher %MVPA than the VID group, and %MVPA was lower during the final two lessons compared to the earlier lessons across groups. Perceived enjoyment was analyzed across three timepoints. A main effect for time revealed that perceived enjoyment was higher after lesson 2 than lesson 8.
Conclusions: The findings indicate that jump rope is a learned skill that can be improved in as short as eight lessons with elementary students. A jump rope unit with various jumping skills, rope tricks, short routines, and interactive games can be a meaningful addition to elementary PE programs. In addition, teaching jump rope may help enhance students’ executive function and support high levels of physical activity. Implementing jump rope as part of school-related physical activities can be a cost-effective strategy to combat childhood obesity and mental health conditions.
Examining the Effects of PE Teacher Behaviors on Actual Motor Competence
Unjong Lee1, Ali BrianF, An DeMeester, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) participation in early childhood facilitates a physically active lifestyle in future years. Nowadays, in the USA, PA engagement has decreased and sedentary behavior has increased in early childhood (i.e., 3-5 years). According to previous studies, actual motor competence (AMC) is essential for participation in PA and preschools are an ideal place to develop AMC through physical education (PE). Guideline 3 of the Active Start Guidelines for preschoolers (SHAPE 2020) states that preschoolers need to develop competence in fundamental movement and motor skills for future more advanced PA. Because children can learn from what they observe from teachers’ behaviors in school, PE teachers can be critical role models for fostering AMC in early childhood. Therefore, PE teacher behavior can be a principal factor for preschoolers to increase their AMC. However, limited research has examined the impact of PE teacher behavior for promoting AMC in early childhood. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine the effects of PE teacher behavior on young children’s AMC based on the process-product paradigm.
Method: A convenience sample of young children (N=64; Boys=55%) aged 37-72 months (Mage=59.8 months, SD=10 months) and their PE teachers (N=2, Women = 100%) from an Early Childhood Center participated in this research. AMC data were collected with the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) and PE teacher behavior with qualitative measures of teaching performance scale (QMTPS). This research has a descriptive-correlational design, and a regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between PE teacher behavior and AMC.
Analysis/Results: A multiple linear regression was used to examine whether specific PE teacher behavior (e.g., Clarity: CL, Demonstration: DE, Appropriate number of cues: NC, Accuracy of cues: AC, Qualitative cues provided: QC, Specific congruent feedback: SF) significantly predicted AMC. The overall regression was statistically significant (R2= .31, F (5, 58) = 5.10, p= <.001). DE (β= 195.81, p= <.001), QC (β= 66.13, p= <.001), and SF (β= 221.82, p= .003) significantly predicted AMC. However, CL (β=19.26, p= .59) and NC (β=25.79, p= .52) did not significantly predict AMC (AC was excluded by statistical analysis).
Conclusions: Findings demonstrate that specific PE teacher behaviors (i.e., DE, QC, SF) can positively predict AMC in early childhood. Within the process-product paradigm as conceptual framework, teacher behavior in PE can play an important role in helping preschoolers to develop AMC for participating in many kinds of PA. Therefore, PE experts in preschool can consider the effects of specific PE teacher behaviors as instructional strategies. Future research needs to examine whether PE teacher behavior predicts AMC in different school levels (e.g., elementary school, secondary school) and the associations among PE teacher behavior, AMC, and PA in early childhood.
Exploring Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of Humanities-Oriented Physical Education
Daekyun Oh1, St. Bonaventure University; Kidae Lee, Seoul National University; Seung Soo Baek, The University of Alabama; Gi-cheol Kim, University of Wisconsin La Crosse; Hyungsik Min, Arizona State University; Wonhee Lee, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: The fundamental goal of the school is to facilitate the holistic development of students (Greenberg et al., 2003), and physical education has been introduced as a powerful subject that can make students into the whole person (Jones, 2005). This holistic view aligns with the concept of Humanities-Oriented Physical Education (HOPE), which is an integrated approach to physical education based on the premise that humanities-oriented aspects of sport (e.g., philosophy, literature, art, music, history, and religion) should be delivered to students for facilitating harmonized development (Choi, 2010). Considering the alignment, utilizing HOPE can promote the fundamental goal of school physical education. Thus, this study aimed to explore physical education pre-service teachers’ (PTs) understanding and perceptions of HOPE after providing a series of learning activities, thereby maximizing the possibility of utilizing HOPE in physical education settings.
Method: A qualitative case study design was adopted as a methodological approach to focus primarily on a group of PTs in the Eastern US as a boundary. Eight PTs were selected as key informants. Throughout one semester, PTs learned about HOPE and one pedagogical model that embodies HOPE through a series of learning activities: (a) attending a 3-credit course focused on HOPE, (b) implementing HOPE into their student teaching, (c) making a conference presentation about their learning HOPE, and (d) joining informal meetings. During and after their learning, data were gathered through individual interviews, observation and field notes, and participants’ written materials (e.g., reflective journals, teaching philosophy, lesson plans, and presentation materials).
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using inductive analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2018). We also took three techniques to establish trustworthiness: triangulation, member check, and peer debriefing. Four themes were developed during the analysis process: (a) playing is just one way of learning sports, (b) HOPE looks like a bigger spectrum for inclusion, (c) a bounce between two branches: students’ reactions, and (d) it is doable! The findings indicated that PTs understood HOPE as a comprehensive concept (e.g., including not only psychomotor but also cognitive and affective development), which makes physical education an inclusive environment. Because of this, their learning about HOPE helped them change their point of view on physical education, such as holistic perspectives. PTs also believed that although students’ reactions to HOPE were mixed, it could be feasible to implement in school physical education.
Conclusions: This study demonstrates meaningful evidence about PTs’ positive perceptions of HOPE to create physical education as an inclusive environment for holistic development. However, this study also has some limitations. We had a narrow perspective on HOPE because data were gathered from only a group of PTs, and other possible groups (e.g., students) were not included as key informants. Thus, future studies should include various individuals as key informants. In addition, the possibility of transferability to other contexts (e.g., another group of teachers in a different geographical region) is limited. Thus, the current study needs to be replicated in the future with different contexts and/or groups of teachers to gain stronger evidence of the perception of HOPE.
Exploring SEL Implementation with Underserved Children in Elementary Physical Education
Seunghyun Baek1, SUNY Cortland; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Donal Howley, Towson University; Yanhua Shen, The University of Virginia’s College at Wise; Yongjin Lee, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Background/Purpose: With an increased attention on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) (Taylor et al., 2017), Physical Education (PE) has been argued to promote social and emotional development of students in different school contexts (Wright & Richards, 2021). Given that SEL can be one of the significant aspects to determine student success at an elementary level (Author et al., 2019), it is important to explore what educational experiences PE teachers and students perceive important for SEL in elementary PE contexts.
Thus, this study aimed to investigate what educational experiences a teacher and students perceive important for SEL in PE at a rural elementary school. Especially focused on the school context where most students were underserved children, this study examined what educational experiences in PE can contribute to SEL development of those student populations.
Method: This study was conducted at a Title I rural school, where 98% of the students came from low-income families with free or reduced-price meals. 80% of the students were ethnic minorities, who have been socio-culturally underrepresented. With one PE teacher and 31 elementary students participated in this study. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, focus groups with students, class observations, and researcher’s reflexive journals. Inductive qualitative analysis was implemented with constant comparisons (Miles et al., 2014; Saldaña, 2013). Trustworthiness was enhanced through member checks, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and clarification of the researcher positionality (Morse, 2015; Tracy, 2019).
Analysis/Results: Three themes were generated from the data analysis.
Celebrating students’ accomplishments
“For a kid to feel like they’ve personally accomplished something is very important. So, them being able to hear that daily [that] … they are completing the task and they’re doing it at their pace” (Steven, PE teacher, Interview); “And then the people that make good choices … then he’ll be like ‘I’m very proud of you being, Interview good today’” (Cornell, 4th grade, Focus group).
Creating emotionally supportive environments
“These kids put [asked] me one time, ‘Are you okay, Mr. Smith? You look upset, right?’ ‘I had a tough day, but I’m okay. Thank you for asking’. For kids to read me like that” (Steven, PE, Interview); “He cheers us. Like, he tells us you can do anything if you put your mind to it” (Damien, 5th, Interview).
Cognitively unpacking SEL concepts
“When I see a negative interaction … . we all sit down and talk about what happened and how we can fix it … asking restorative questions” (Steven, PE teacher, Interview); “When somebody is cheating, the PE teacher … asked to use ‘integrity’, be honest and not cheating” (Terry, 4th grade, Focus Group).
Conclusions: This study provided in-depth qualitative evidence regarding what educational experiences in PE can enhance SEL development of underserved children. From perspectives of a PE teacher and students at a rural elementary school, the findings suggest that SEL development of underserved children can be promoted when they are acknowledged, emotionally and cognitively supported by their PE teacher. We claim that more research should be conducted with underserved children in different school contexts to fully legitimize the findings.
Influence of Teacher Appearance on Student Learning and Perceptions
Brian Myers1, YuChun Chen, Western Kentucky University
Background/Purpose: Previous research conducted on physical education (PE) teachers’ physical appearance has focused on body composition, physical functioning and mobility, and age. This research aimed to address the physical appearance of attire and grooming on elementary, middle, and high school students’ learning and perceptions of the teachers.
Method: A tchoukball lesson was taught and videotaped four times to two seventh-grade classes by two undergraduate PE majors. The 20-minute lesson included introduction/rules, skill learning/practice, game play, and closure. Teachers’ attire and grooming is illustrated as (1) Female unprofessional appearance: hair down, an oversize hoodie covering most of her short shorts, and long socks with slides; (2) Female professional appearance: hair up in a bun, a tucked-in short-sleeved collared shirt, athletic joggers, and athletic shoes; (3) Male unprofessional appearance: a backward hat, an unshaven face, a short-sleeved T-shirt over knee-length shorts, and long socks with slides; and (4) Male professional appearance: a crew cut hairstyle, a clean shaven, a short-sleeved collared shirt over full-length khaki pants, and athletic shoes. The videos were then shown to 568 elementary, 428 middle school, and 533 high school students in a southeastern state. Each PE class was randomly assigned to watch one of the four videos and given a 12-question content exam (techniques and strategies) and six-item perception questionnaire (likability, competence, and appropriateness) immediately after watching the video.
Analysis/Results: 2 (gender) x 2 (appearance) ANOVAs were conducted to identify any significant main effects or interactions on the overall exam, the two content areas, and the three teacher perceptions. Findings showed a significant interaction on elementary students’ learning in tchoukball techniques. Test scores were higher when the female teacher had a professional appearance; however, a reversed result was found with the male teacher. For middle school students, teachers’ gender was a more influential factor than their appearance. Those who watched the female videos outperformed their peers who watched the male videos in the overall exam and strategy-questions. For high school students, teachers’ appearance had a strong impact on their learning as significant effects were found in the overall exam and both content areas. Test scores were higher after watching the unprofessional appearance videos than the professional appearance videos. Further, there was a significant interaction effect on the strategy-questions. Teachers’ attire and grooming appeared to have a similar effect with both teachers (unprofessional > professional), and the effect was much more dramatic when the male teacher had a different appearance than the female teacher did. As for students’ perceptions, the only significant main effect was found on the teachers’ appropriateness as role models at the middle school level. They thought the teachers were more of a role model when they dressed/groomed unprofessionally.
Conclusions: The findings are congruent with previous research that teachers’ physical appearance has significant influence on student learning and perceptions of the teachers. Echoed with the most recent series of papers on the aspect of age, both sociological and psychological/developmental perspectives are used to better explain how children and adolescents react to PE teachers’ attire and grooming in this research.
Influencing Factors on the Acceptance of Technology of P.E. Teachers in China
Yizhe Xu1, Jianghan University
Background/Purpose: With the development of technological innovation and the spread of COVIID-19 pandemic, literature shows an inevitable rise in the use of information and computer technology in educational reforms for elementary and secondary education. Comparing to other subjects, however, technologies used in physical education were much less, and the influencers were uncovered. The purpose of this research is to explore the contributing factors of P.E. teachers’ decision-making on the acceptance of technology in elementary and middle schools.
Method: Based on Technology Acceptance Model, pre-tested questionnaires were distributed by e-mails to 680 public elementary and junior high school P.E. teachers in eastern (Shanghai, Anhui), middle (Hubei, Hunan) and south-western (Sichuan, Yunnan) part of China. The items (including subjective norm, performance expectancy, perceived risk, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and intention to use) were selected and modified based on validated measurements from prior research, and the wording was adapted to fit the targeted education context. The Objective of this study is to build a model that reveal the measures affecting P.E. teachers’ intention and behavior to use technology.
Analysis/Results: It was found that perceived ease of use fully mediated the relationship between IU and other measures (β =.21, p > .05), while SN (β =.33, p < .01) and PE (β=.20, p < .05) both had a significant and positive effect on PU, and PR had a significant negative effect on PEoU (β =.-51, p < .01). 11 out of 15 hypotheses were supported by the results.
Conclusions: This study supports the TAM to explain the intentions and behaviors to use technologies by P.E. teachers. Similar to previous studies, subjective norm appears to play an importance role in the decision-making process, while perceived risk would affect the willingness to use technology. In this case, effective trainings and other supportive strategies should be taken place to facilitate teachers’ belief in using technology as well as to decrease their anxiety.
Integrating edTPA into PETE: Faculty Experiences in Preparing Pre-service Teachers
Edward B. Olsen1, Kean University; James D. Wyant, Emi TsudaF, West Virginia University; Michael K. Laughlin, Southern Connecticut State University; Deborah S Baxter, Kennesaw State University
Background/Purpose: There is limited empirical research on the edTPA in physical education (Baxter & Sinelnikov, 2022a, 2022b; Grimes, 2020; Holden, Parkes, & O’Leary, 2020). In the United States, 15 states maintain policies and 25 states have some degree of edTPA affiliation. The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to understand how the edTPA was integrated and aligned into different PETE programs in New Jersey; and (b) to understand PETE faculty perceptions and experiences in preparing pre-service teachers for the edTPA in different PETE programs in New Jersey, where the state legislature governs teacher licensure requirements.
Method: This study used an exploratory, multi-case research design (Yin, 2018). The participants were recruited in New Jersey using a key informant, key knowledgeable, and reputational sampling approach (Patton, 2015). To the authors’ knowledge, there are a total of six PETE programs in New Jersey. A total of four out of six PETE faculty members agreed to participate because they had expertise and experience with the edTPA. This study contained three data sources: semi-structured interviews (n = 4), one focus group interview (n = 1), and documents (n = 4). The context, input, process, and product (CIPP) model (Stufflebeam, 2003) informed this study. Trustworthiness was achieved through intercoder reliability, triangulation, audit trail, peer examinations, member checks, and field testing.
Analysis/Results: The interview and document data were analyzed inductively using a conventional approach to qualitative content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). During data analysis, the researchers identified five themes. They are (a) benefits and drawbacks to the edTPA, (b) goals and successes in edTPA, (c) edTPA integration, (d) strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities, and (e) recommendations. The benefits of the edTPA focused on becoming a reflective practitioner; emphasizing planning, instruction, and assessment; and lesson building, alignment, and interconnectedness. The drawbacks of the edTPA were that clinical placements affect teacher candidates (TCs) success on the edTPA, cost, unrealistic assessment, stress inflicted on cooperating teachers, detraction from student teaching, outside evaluators and interrater reliability, and small PETE programs with limited resources. The goals addressed having the students pass the edTPA, graduate, and get certified. The edTPA integration occurred from a macro, micro, and monitoring perspective. The strengths were early exposure to the edTPA, quality adjuncts, equipment, technology, and partnerships. The weaknesses were a curriculum geared toward the edTPA, low rubric scores in Task 3, and a disconnection between what TCs learn and what they experience in the field when it comes to assessment. Opportunities for improvement on the edTPA centered on the capstone instructors meeting with university supervisors, the development of a mentorship program, professional development, and collaboration among university faculty, cooperating teachers, and university supervisors. Recommendations were based on whether or not the edTPA was required for state licensing.
Conclusions: In states that mandate the edTPA for teacher licensure, early exposure, scaffolding, curriculum mapping, and a shared mission and vision are essential for TCs success.
Internal Factors Influencing High School Physical Education Teachers’ Content Selection
Olivia J. Gillispie1, Emi TsudaF, Eloise M. ElliottF, Kayla Abrahamson, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: SHAPE America (2013) emphasizes the importance of high school physical education (HSPE) in developing adolescents’ motor skills and preparing them for physical activity in adulthood. However, engagement and satisfaction with physical education tend to decrease with age, especially in high school (Subramanian & Silverman, 2007). Negative attitudes are linked to a narrowly focused curriculum perceived as repetitive, dull, or overly competitive (Banville et al., 2021; Phillips et al., 2020). Understanding this decline in adolescents’ physical activity and HSPE’s impact on motivation is important. Additionally, studying the stability of team sports in HSPE and factors influencing content selection is essential, given the flexibility many physical educators’ have in designing their curriculum (Banville et al., 2021).
Method: An explanatory sequential mixed-methods research design (quan –> QUAL) was used to investigate how internal factors influence content selection among HSPE teachers. The study involved two phases of data collection. In the first phase, 90 public HSPE teachers were surveyed using a 21-question electronic survey. This phase aimed to identify physical activity categories and content taught in HSPE and identify personal and school-level factors influencing content selection. In the second phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 participants selected from phase one. These interviews aimed to enhance the understanding of quantitative findings, through elaboration on the themes derived from the survey data.
Analysis/Results: Regarding the survey results, descriptive statistics revealed that when selecting content to include in the HSPE curriculum, games and sports (n=69; 77%) and fitness (n = 17; 18%) activities were most frequently taught, while minimal attention was given to the individual performance (n = 2; 2%), outdoor pursuits (n = 2; 2%), aquatics (n = 0; 0%), and dance and rhythmic (n = 0; 0%) activity categories. These results mirrored teachers’ perceived content knowledge and instructional confidence, with the majority of teachers suggesting they were most confident in the games and sports (n = 90; 90%) and fitness (n = 88; 98%) categories. This revealed a strong link between content selection, content knowledge, and instructional confidence. Moreover, the data highlighted several key internal factors influencing teachers’ content choices. Prominent school-level factors included large class sizes (n = 66; 73%), student interest (n = 62; 68%), inadequate equipment (n = 43; 48%), and inadequate facilities (n = 42; 47%). Noteworthy personal-level factors were teachers’ perceived content knowledge (n = 69; 77%), instructional confidence (n = 64; 71%), and personal beliefs about HSPE (n = 54; 60%). The interview data, analyzed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2012), further supported the findings of the survey, elaborating on the intricacies of these prominent internal factors. Interviewees noted that content from the games and sports, and fitness categories aligned well with their schools’ contextual barriers and their level of comfortability teaching these categories. Interestingly, interview participants teaching lifetime physical activity content noted that these barriers at both the school and personal levels were facilitators when and if they are appropriately addressed.
Conclusions: This research underscores the multifaceted and contextual nature of HSPE curriculum decisions and reveals the potential to transform obstacles into opportunities for enriched physical education experiences through refined instructional practices and policy decisions.
Job Satisfaction of Early Career Physical Educators
Yoonsin Oh1, Saori Braun, Travis Von Haden, Josiah Johnson, Jayden Beckley, J.T. Bogle, Abigail Keenan, Chase Melton, Abbey Jacobs, Hannah Elmer, Elaine Proefrock, University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: Forty four percent of teachers leaving the profession are early career teachers in their first 5 years of teaching. Physical education (PE) field is an area that is also finding challenges in retaining teachers. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore emerging themes that were related to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of early career PE teachers in the Midwest region.
Method: A total of 8 early career physical educators were recruited using snowball and purposive sampling from Mid-western state. A semi-structured online interview using Zoom platform was conducted inquiring on participants’ experience and perspectives on their job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Prior to their interview, participants completed a survey on Qualtrics to obtain demographic information such as years of teaching, number of classes, and size of each class. The interview was audio-recorded, and researchers transcribed the interview for qualitative analysis.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using categorical aggregation based on grounded theory. Researchers triangulated among researchers to ensure data trustworthiness. Five primary themes surrounding job satisfaction emerged, including: 1) administration relations, supports, and school demographics (i.e., school location, size, grade level), 2) co-worker relations and values, 3) PE teaching external factors (i.e., teacher salary, class sizes, class types, subs, location of gym/office, clothing/attire, and summers off), 4) student relations and motivations; and 5) teacher attitudes & sense of autonomy. One interesting pattern emerged that elementary school non-PE coworkers showed more support and respect of PE teachers compared to high school non-PE teachers. One of the trends of relationships between PE teachers was that there was generally a sense that the most veteran teachers would dominate the curriculum planning and teaching and not necessarily leave as much room for the newer PE teachers to make contributions.
Conclusions: These five major themes led us to practical implications of our findings. First, to keep PE teachers in the profession and satisfied with their job, the administration needs to provide them with intentional guidance and support. Providing them with meaningful professional development opportunities may also be beneficial in retaining early career PE teachers. Second, it is critical that PE teachers are developing relationships with other teachers, front office staff, and especially the janitors. Along with creating relationships with the staff, developing relationships with the students is another critical part of having a high job satisfaction in the PE profession. Finally, hiring PE teachers who are passionate about teaching their students the value of PE will greatly increase the chances of those teachers remaining in the profession. Future research is warranted in investigating the effectiveness of implementing interventions to help resolve contributing job dissatisfaction factors and to improve the current attrition rate.
Knowledge and Understanding of Physical Literacy among PE Teacher Candidates
Allan Gabriel Ramirez1, Proviso West High School; Kimberly Maljak, James W Ball, Northeastern Illinois University; Robert Holmes, Chicago State University; David Canola, Northeastern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: SHAPE America (n.d.) states, “Physical literacy is the ability, confidence, and desire to be physically active for life” (Next Steps section). Physical Education (PE) includes a standards-based curriculum “designed to develop motor skills, knowledge and behaviors for active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence” (SHAPE America, n.d., para.1). Whitehead (2013) confirms PE is the curriculum and the goal in PE should be to reach physical literacy (PL). With the end goal of PL, physical educators should be able to create meaningful and relevant lessons to help children reach PL. When physical educators lack knowledge and understanding of PL, they could face challenges helping students reach their own physical activity goals. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge and understanding of PL among first and last year teacher candidates in one university PETE program.
Method: This study was a mixed-methods design. To gather knowledge of PL a 10-item scale was created using information from PL instruments. The 18-item Perceived Physical Literacy Instrument (Sum et al, 2016) was used to assess students’ understanding of PL. Two t-tests compared the knowledge and understanding of PL between first year and last year PETE students. According to survey responses, researchers invited volunteers (n = 12) to participate in one 30-minute individual interview. Interviews invited students to share their knowledge and understanding of PL. Qualitative data was analyzed using constant comparison and inductive analysis throughout to identify three themes. Trustworthiness was sought by triangulation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and member checking.
Analysis/Results: Two independent samples t-tests were conducted and revealed statistical significance (p < 0.05) between knowledge and understanding of PL among first and last year PETE students. Last year PETE students reported more knowledge of PL (M = 6.11, SD = 1.25) than first year PETE students t(67) = -3.36, p = .0013. Last year PETE students reported more understanding of PL (M = 82.24, SD = 6.62) than first year PETE students t(67) = -2.22, p = .0296. The qualitative data revealed that knowledge and understanding of PL stemmed from previous PE, sport, and physical activities. Those with knowledge and understanding, tended to have higher levels of PL and the confidence to be active through planned, daily workouts and/or leisure activities.
Conclusions: The quantitative data revealed that last year PETE students had more knowledge and understanding of PL. This finding was an expected outcome as last year students should have more knowledge and a better understanding of PL in PETE programs because they have had more exposure in academic classes. The qualitative data revealed specific themes as to why PE students had more of an understanding and knowledge of PE in PL. For example, those with previous experience were more confident in creating a workout schedule, managing schedules to include physical activity, and enjoyed leisure activities to stay active. Results from this study could be used to encourage PETE programs to introduce PL at all points of their program to ensure knowledge and confidence as they become educators.
Kuwaiti Pre-service Physical Education Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Teacher Training
Omar Albaloul1, Arizona State University, Kuwait University
Background/Purpose: The quality of instruction students receive is universally acknowledged to significantly influence their academic outcomes. Consequently, teacher preparation programs aim to nurture pre-service teachers, equipping them with both content knowledge and the pedagogical skills essential for delivering quality education. However, the existing literature suggests that physical education teacher education (PETE) programs often fall short of furnishing preservice PE teachers with sufficient content knowledge to impart essential skills, such as sports and health-related fitness. Additionally, research shows that only a minority of courses in PETE programs focus on preparing preservice teachers to teach effectively. Notably, there is a research void in Kuwait concerning preservice PE teachers’ perceptions about their preparedness for teaching PE. This study seeks to bridge this gap by delving into the perceptions of preservice PETE teachers regarding their readiness for teaching PE in schools.
Method: Eight preservice PE teachers in the last semester of their PETE program were selected for this study. All the participants hail from the College of Basic Education (CBE), the only institution in Kuwait offering a PE program. Data was gleaned using individual semi-structured interviews, each lasting 40–50 minutes. After coding, the interview data were analyzed by employing the thematic analysis technique. The rigor and trustworthiness of the qualitative data were ensured through triangulation, member checks, prolonged engagement, and peer debriefing.
Analysis/Results: Three themes emerged from the data:
A) Valuation of Sports Diversity in PETE: Preservice students expressed gratitude for the array of sports incorporated into their PETE program. They deemed this crucial, given the need to teach multiple sports in schools. Illustratively, one participant noted, “The extensive sports courses and having two classes for every major sport were beneficial.” Another highlighted the advantage of being exposed to numerous sports, especially since each student specializes predominantly in one sport.
B) Deficiency in Teaching and Assessment Skills: A significant portion of the participants felt that the PETE program failed to prepare them adequately for teaching and assessing students. Their courses largely emphasized performance over instruction. One interviewee remarked, “Our learning was geared toward performance, not instruction.” Another commented on an overemphasis on the history and rules of sports, lamenting the lack of training in student management and pedagogical instruction. A recurrent sentiment was about the incongruence between being assessed on personal sports performance and the actual demands of teaching. A participant said, “There was no training on student assessment and grading; essential skills we never acquired.”
C) Insufficiency in Training for School-Specific PE Tasks: Participants reported that the PETE program inadequately prepared them for duties outside the gym setting, such as spearheading preschool programs and recess activities.
Conclusions: The findings underscore preservice teachers’ appreciation for the diverse courses designed for teaching various sports and activities within their PETE program. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need to recalibrate the PETE courses’ emphasis from being purely performance-based to pedagogically instructive. Future studies should assess preservice PE teachers’ common and specialized content knowledge to better understand their actual preparedness level to teach PE.
Latin America Preservice Teachers’ Content Knowledge of Health-Related Fitness
Jose A. Santiago1, Sam Houston State University; James R. Morrow Jr.F, University of North Texas; Julio Morales, Lamar University
Background/Purpose: A deep understanding of content knowledge is fundamental to quality teaching and student learning (Ward & Ayvazo, 2016). In the United States, health-related fitness (HRF) is one of the most common content knowledge areas taught in physical education teacher education (PETE) programs (Santiago & Morrow, 2021). However, little is known about preservice teachers’ health-related fitness content knowledge in Latin American countries. Therefore, to address this gap in the literature the purpose of this study was to assess preservice physical education teachers’ health-related fitness content knowledge in 5 Latin American locations.
Method: 538 preservice physical education teachers (female = 190, male = 348) from four Latin American countries (Chile = 167, Colombia = 121, Costa Rica = 49, Mexico = 167) and a U.S. territory (Puerto Rico = 34) ranging from 19 to 52 years of age. The Health-Related Fitness Knowledge (HRFK) test developed by Santiago and Morrow (2018) was used to assess content knowledge of HRF. Before administration, the test was translated into Spanish following the World Health Organization (WHO) process of translations and adaption of instruments. Preservice teachers completed the test online using Qualtrics in a classroom setting supervised by a PETE faculty member.
Analysis/Results: KR20 analysis for the test administration yielded a 0.71 reliability coefficient which was considered to be an acceptable level of reliability and consistent with that reported previously in the United States. The mean percentage score correct for the HRFK test was 53.6% (M = 21.4, SD = 5.2). Preservice teachers scored less than 50% correct on test items related to basic physical fitness concepts (40%), PA for adults (11%), PA for children (16%), behavior change (28%), fitness program planning (40%), cardiorespiratory endurance (30%), flexibility (40%), body composition (34%), assessments of HRF (35%), and assessments of PA (24%).
Conclusions: To date, there are no studies that have investigated preservice physical education teachers’ knowledge about HRF in Latin America. The poor performance of preservice teachers on the HRFK test is consistent with the studies conducted in the United States (Santiago, Morales, & Dish, 2016; Santiago & Morrow, 2021). If physical education teachers are responsible for teaching children and youth how to lead a physically active lifestyle it is essential that they have a deep understanding of HRF content. This becomes more significant in Latin America as 66% of adolescents are insufficiently physically active, ≥ 40% are sedentary, and ≥ 20% are physically inactive (Bernabe-Ortiz & Carrillo-Larco, 2022). It is suggested that PETE programs in Latin America assess the validity and relevance of the health-related fitness content taught to preservice teachers and develop delivery systems that ensure higher cognitive understanding of HRF concepts.
Leveraging AI for Health Education Integration into Common Core Curriculum
Laura Rees1, Parkview Middle School; Eric Conrad, California State University, Stanislaus
Background/Purpose: Best-practice recommendations in school health education (HE) and standards-based instruction often pose implementation challenges, particularly for educators without HE expertise or in schools lacking mandated HE instruction. Common core subject teachers may have a desire to incorporate HE but are unable to overcome barriers that include lack of training, time, support, and self-efficacy. One promising strategy to overcome these barriers is through the use of supportive artificial intelligence (AI) tools. This case study reports how a 7th-grade history/ELA teacher employed AI to integrate HE standards into common core (CC) curriculum during an academic trimester. The study examined whether a teacher, lacking prior HE training or experience, could leverage a supportive AI tool to efficaciously integrate HE standards into CC subjects, thereby enhancing their attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions towards HE.
Method: This study used a pre-post design to collect baseline data as a comparative to post implementation outcomes. A theory-based questionnaire was used to assess perceived attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions to implement. The SHAPE America Appropriate Practices in School-Based Health Education were used to assess perceived improvements in practice as a result of supplemental AI in areas such as learning environment, curriculum, instructional strategies, and assessment. Teacher reflections were collected following the implementation period to determine perceived benefits, challenges, and limitations of implementation.
Prior to the academic trimester, the 7th grade teacher participated in a 1-hour training that introduced the AI tool and HE content standards, and demonstrated its utility and application using hands-on demonstration. The teacher was encouraged to integrate HE standards into their CC subject but was not required. If the teacher chose to create HE integrated units/lessons, they were sent to a content expert to review the efficacy after the teacher had reported implementation.
Analysis/Results: Over the trimester implementation period, the teacher integrated HE standards into each academic unit and delivered the lessons to students. Reviewed lessons were determined to include many appropriate practices such as standards-based backwards design, skills-based pedagogy, alignment of formative and summative assessment, as well as incorporation of inclusivity elements such as Universal Design for Learning. Teacher reflection indicated that supportive AI allowed for expedient and adaptable curriculum design while minimizing time burdens for development. Reflections and pre/post assessment indicated the teacher believed supportive AI facilitated professional improvements in all assessed areas of the SHAPE appropriate practices for both HE and CC instruction. The teacher also reported excitement to advocate and promote among colleagues. Pre and post assessment also indicated significant increases in teacher attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions towards HE integration.
Conclusions: Utilizing AI, a 7th-grade teacher, with no prior health education training, successfully integrated HE standards into CC curriculum. This innovative approach led not only to the effective implementation of health-integrated lessons, but also significantly improved the teacher’s attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions towards HE integration. The adaptability and efficiency of AI streamlined curriculum development, promoting enthusiasm from the teacher to advocate for this approach amongst peers. Integration of AI in HE shows promise and should be explored further.
Leveraging Cross-University Collaborations to Diversify Student Experiences
Shannon C. Mulhearn1, University of Nebraska - Kearney; Emily D. Clapham, University of Rhode Island; Amy Gagnon, Central Connecticut State University; Karie Lee Orendorff, Montana State University
Background/Purpose: Recently, Beddoes and Jones (2022) declared a need for faculty within physical education teacher education (PETE) programs to be innovative and to create new ways to support the field and future educators. The present study took advantage of the opportunity to inspire cross-institutional collective action across multiple PETE programs in order to benefit all students involved. Grounded in Lave and Wenger’s Communities of Practice ([CoPs], 1991) the purpose of this study was to investigate the potential for collaborations between students in different regions of the US to introduce concepts of diversity and connectedness to undergraduate PETE majors.
Method: Professors at seven universities were included in the original conception of this project. A shared drive was used to communicate courses professors were teaching over the following school year (Fall 2020, Spring 2021). Common courses were paired and professors discussed ideas for collaborations. Professors from three universities created collaborative assignments for their students. Two classes from UniA were involved and one class each from UniB and UniC.
Custom assignments were created between similar courses to give students a common ground to work within. Course pairings included a Curriculum & Assessment course (UniA) and an Organization & Administration course (UniB) with common content of planning campus-wide events, and a Motor Development course (UniA) and an Adapted Physical Education course (UniC) who discussed the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) as common content. Students submitted weekly reflections through their learning management system which were later downloaded, and students’ names were removed.
Analysis/Results: Data were examined using constant comparison to identify patterns across data. Student themes included: (a) challenges, (b) recognizing diversity, (c) acknowledging assumptions, and (d) noticing connections. Challenges were often due to communication breakdowns such as emails going directly to ‘junk’ folder. The geographic diversity received a lot of attention and resulted in students writing about the other region of the US and considering how things were in that other location. Although the assumptions being made were simple such as “ … I really expected her to have dark hair … ” students were afforded the opportunity to reflect on their habitual assumptions. Finally, students recognized that they had something in common with their peers even at different universities. Many students noted previously believing their PETE program was isolated or disconnected from other university programs, but through this project they realized there were many similarities they had with people they had never physically met yet.
Conclusions: Cross-university collaborative projects resulted in some challenges, but many more benefits. The use of cross-university collaborations to foster CoPs for future teachers may hold many more unseen benefits beyond graduation as well. The assignments took minimal planning beyond identifying common content taught in paired courses and following up with students who were not responding to emails. This is an example of a successful reach across traditional boundaries of institutions and states that holds potential to strengthen connections and make the future physical educators better prepared for long-distance collaborations, CoPs, and to decrease feelings of isolation within HPE.
Perceptions of Undergraduate Students on Their Growth and Professional Development Through the University Homeschool Physical Education Program
Lynsey Anderson1, Riley Armstrong, Megan Hansen, Zach Rahn, Yoonsin Oh, Saori Braun, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: Homeschool Physical Education (PE) programs have been incorporated in physical education teacher education (PETE) program as part of preservice student teachers’ initial experience to work with K-12 aged students. Homeschool PE teaching experiences allow undergraduate students the opportunity to enhance their teaching skills, practice practical behavior management strategies, and gain first-hand experience on lesson planning and lesson execution. Most of the research relating to homeschool PE programs evaluates homeschool children and parents’ perceptions of their programs. The gap in current literature is the lack of research on university homeschool PE programs, especially regarding the benefits they give university undergraduate PETE students. The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of undergraduate preservice students on their growth and professional development through the mid-western university’s homeschool PE program.
Method: A total of eight PE teaching major students (ages 19-22) who completed a homeschool PE program during fall 2022 semester were recruited. Researchers conducted a semi-structured interview to ask reflective questions regarding their experiences and perceptions on their growth. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for data analysis.
Analysis/Results: Qualitative analysis methods such as aggregation and categorization were used to discover the themes. For trustworthiness, the team analyzed the transcript together after individual analysis and drew conclusion for the common themes. The seven common themes were emerged from the interview: 1) enhancement of content and pedagogical knowledge, 2) positive feeling of improved confidence and personal growth, 3) enjoyment of teaching in a controlled environment within early field experiences, 4) gaining experience teaching diverse populations other than public school setting, 5) connecting theory and practice, 6) sense of professional growth, and 7) negative impact of peer presence and feedback.
Conclusions: Participants in this study shared their experience and perception on their personal professional growth from homeschool PE program experience positively in general. The PETE program should continue to provide preservice student teacher with homeschool PE teaching experience at early field experience. The only one theme that was negatively related to their perception was having their peers observing their teaching and providing them with feedback. The future research is warranted investigating further on the process of peer evaluation and impact of peer presence and feedback on preservice teachers’ perception and teaching to understand beginning teachers and ensure the quality of PETE program.
Physical Education Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Pre-service Teacher Education
Gunay Sen1, University of Kentucky; Aaron Beighle, The University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: Physical education teacher preparation is essential to ensure future teachers are equipped with the skills to provide quality education. Incorporating global perspectives in this process ensures future educators are more culturally aware. An important component of making certain teachers are well-prepared is garnering input from current teachers regarding their needs and perceptions. Therefore, the aim of this research was to examine the perceptions of current physical educators from Australia, the USA, and Turkey regarding their experiences and preparedness to teach physical education.
Method: This mix methods design included 37 Physical Education teachers (Mage=37.89 years, Mexperience= 13.84 years, 16 Female, 21 Male) from three countries who completed an online survey. Descriptive statistics and one sample t-test were used to answer these research questions. Data from follow-up semi-structured interviews were analyzed to establish themes based on participant narratives.
Analysis/Results: The teachers’ perceptions of their past and present physical education classes and their PETE experiences were compared across three countries: Australia, the United States, and Turkey. The results showed that the American PE teachers had a more positive view of the current physical education than the physical education they experienced (89.9%). Turkish PE teachers did not see any significant difference between current status of physical education and physical education during their own schooling (60%). The Australian PE teachers reported that the quality of physical education was high in both the past and the present (87.5%). The results of the teacher’s PETE perceptions showed that the Australian and American PE teachers had similar views on the areas that their PETE programs did not prepare them well for teaching. Thematically, teachers reported a lack of preparedness in four areas: organizing and conducting extra-curricular activities at school (62.5% Australian teachers, 66.7% American teachers), working in the school’s community (62.5% Australian teachers, 66.7% American teachers), performing administrative duties (62.5% Australian teachers, 55.5% American teachers), and using assessment and reporting techniques in their lessons (50% Australian teachers, 55.6% American teachers). The Turkish PE teachers reported that their PETE programs did not equip them with the skills required to support children with learning difficulties (52.5%), work with children with disabilities (52.5%), and teach multi-grade classes (52.5%).
Conclusions: This study shows that PE teachers from different countries have different perceptions of their past and present physical education classes and their PETE programs. These perceptions may be influenced by the curriculum, policies, and practices of physical education in each country. The study also suggests some common areas that PETE programs should improve on, such as providing more opportunities for PE teachers to participate in extra-curricular activities, community work, and administrative tasks, and enhancing their assessment and reporting skills. These areas are vital for developing PE teachers’ professional identity, leadership, and advocacy. PETE programs should also cater to the specific needs of PE teachers in different contexts, such as supporting diverse learners, teaching multi-grade classes, and adapting to changing curriculum standards.
Preservice Teachers’ Knowledge Across Years in a PETE Program
Emi TsudaF1, West Virginia University; Phillip WardF, The Ohio State University; Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Bomna Ko, East Carolina University; Junyoung Kim, Missouri State University; Insook KimF, Kent State University; Peter A. HastieF, Auburn University; Jeremy Thompson Yeats, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: Common content knowledge (CCK) refers to knowledge of rules, etiquette, safety, technique, and tactics of movement forms. Tsuda et al. (2019) found that preservice teachers (PSTs) obtain minimal knowledge when they enter a Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) program in volleyball, basketball, badminton, and tennis. Even after the completion of a content course, PSTs’ scores were below 80%, except in basketball. However, this study was conducted in one PETE program, and the instrument was only content validated with 10 open-ended items. In another study. Tsuda et al. (in press) examined what PSTs know at their entry into a PETE program in different universities in volleyball and tennis using validated CCK tests. The results showed that PSTs had minimal CCK in volleyball (M=43.54%, SD=12.54) and tennis (M=44.75%, SD=12.32) at their entry to PETE programs. However, we do not know how much CCK PSTs acquire as they advance through their PETE program taking content courses and engaging in practicum experiences. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the changes in PST’s CCK in tennis and volleyball each year in their PETE programs.
Method: We employed a cross-sectional design examining six (tennis; n=245) and five (volleyball; n=266) different PETE programs in the U.S. Participants completed a demographic background survey and a CCK test in each sport. Both CCK tests consisted of multiple-choice items: tennis (41 items; reliability=.74) and volleyball (40 items; reliability=.71). Preservice teachers completed both CCK tests online using Qualtrics in a classroom setting supervised by a PETE faculty member. The first-year PSTs in a PETE program data collection occurred within the first three weeks of the school academic year to capture the entry-level of the first year PSTs’ knowledge, and data collection for Year 1 (typically sophomores) through 3 (typically seniors) or more in a PETE program occurred within the last three weeks of the academic year.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics showed that a median of CCK levels in both tennis and volleyball were well below our 80% criterion (tennis: Entry=43.90%, Year 1=43.90%, Year 2=43.90%, and Year 3 ≤48.78%; volleyball: Entry=40.00%, Year 1=42.50%, Year 2=40.00%, and Year 3 ≤ =42.50%). This trend was consistent across all programs. Only 8.5% of participants scored 80% or above in tennis, and none did in volleyball. Using a general linear regression model, we also examined the extent to which demographic variables predicted CCK levels by a university, years in a program, recreational and competitive playing experiences, teaching and coaching experiences outside of the PETE programs, college course-taking experience, and teaching experience within a PETE program. The results indicated that the seven variables accounted for 42.5% of the variance in tennis and 23.8% of the variance in volleyball CCK.
Conclusions: This was the first study investigating PSTs’ tennis and volleyball CCK across years in a PETE program. These future teachers knew, on average, less than 50% of the CCK to teach tennis and volleyball. Evaluating the PETE curriculum and pedagogies used in content courses are a pressing need.
Preservice Teachers’ Planned Versus Enacted Content Development During School Placements
Toon Dehandschutter1, KU Leuven, Belgium; Phillip WardF, The Ohio State University; Hans van der MarsF, Arizona State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Teaching is a dynamic activity where teachers must adapt to a specific and often rapidly changing teaching context and make decisions throughout the teaching process (Xie et al., 2021). Adaptive competence is the ability of teachers to adapt content and pedagogy to meet the learning demands of students (Brühwiler & Blatchford, 2011). In this view, teachers are considered active decision-makers who make decisions in their lesson plans and in their teaching (Ward, 2018). The purpose of this study was to investigate preservice teachers’ (PSTs) planned versus enacted content development in teaching frisbee during school placements.
Method: To improve PSTs content knowledge and especially their knowledge of instructional task progressions (i.e., content development), a content knowledge packet for frisbee was taught to four PSTs prior to their teaching in schools. All PSTs taught two 6-lesson frisbee units to different secondary school students in one school, and two 6-lesson units in another school. Audio recordings of all lessons were compared to their lesson plans by trained coders. All tasks were coded as either (a) a task that was taught exactly as planned, (b) a task that was taught as planned but with modifications (i.e., a change in critical elements), (c) a task that was taught but not planned, or (d) a task that was planned but not taught.
Analysis/Results: Data were descriptively analyzed and reported as totals, means and percentages. The four PSTs taught a total of 370 tasks (range 31 - 64) during their four frisbee units. On average, the four PSTs taught 31% of all tasks exactly as planned (range 6% – 68%). Fifty-six percent (range 26% - 91%) of all tasks taught were modified compared to the original tasks in the LP. The proportion of tasks that were planned but not taught was 9% (range 3% - 18%). Four percent of tasks that were taught were not planned (range 0% - 12%).
Conclusions: The results indicated that PSTs modified what they planned when they are teaching. There are possible explanations that should be investigated in future studies. First, is possible that PSTs lacked knowledge of the students to plan appropriate tasks and when confronted with actual students modified the tasks. Second, the teachers did not know the tasks or third, the plan well enough.
Pursuit of Essential Knowledge for Physical Education Teacher Preparation
James D. Wyant1, Sean M. Bulger, Lynn Dale Housner, Emi TsudaF, West Virginia University; Amanda A. Metcalf, Susan Ross, Fairmont State University
Background/Purpose: The question of what knowledge physical education teachers should acquire during professional preparation is central to teacher training. Guidance for physical education teacher education (PETE) comes from universities, state governance, and accrediting bodies. However, the differences in curriculum across PETE programs remain large (Hausner & Ayers, 2008; Ward et al., 2023). Ward et al. (2023) state that disciplinary knowledge (e.g., exercise science and motor development) represented 37.8% of the major’s curriculum coursework. Since disciplinary knowledge (i.e., theoretical foundations) is part of the Initial PETE Standards (SHAPE America, 2017), ensuring these courses are designed to benefit future physical education teachers’ knowledge bases is critical. The voice of teacher educators plays an essential role in determining the necessary knowledge for aspiring teachers. This presentation focuses on a longstanding research line that gathers expert consensus on the knowledge teacher candidates (TC) should possess. It will cover various topics in foundation courses, including exercise science, motor development, history, philosophy, and sociology of sport, and a newly added area of cultural competence (SHAPE America, 2017), with insights into future investigations and shaping graduate education.
Method: The Delphi method is a structured communication process that seeks to gather knowledge and generate consensus of expert opinion through rounds of repeated questionnaires (Busby, 2005). The Delphi method provides researchers with a valuable tool to gather insights and consolidate expert consensus to shape the field of physical education. Central to the Delphi method is the purposeful selection of content experts who are recognized for their expertise. Across the Delphi studies (Wyant et al., 2020), featured experts were those who had published articles on the topic, presented at conferences, or possessed advanced knowledge via academic training on a specific topic. In these Delphi studies, 74 expert panelists contributed to the outcomes. The outcomes of these Delphi studies identified competencies, best practices, and agreed-upon knowledge that can be disseminated throughout the PETE curriculum.
Analysis/Results: In exercise science, 109 competencies were identified, covering topics from nutrition to exercise programming. Motor development and motor learning highlighted 100 critical competencies, including motor behavior across the lifespan and appropriate practice. In sport history, philosophy, and sociology, 27 competencies were deemed relevant. The cultural competence study also identified eight strategies for PETE programs to address cultural competence among TCs.
Conclusions: There remains a need for PETE scholars, practitioners, and sub-disciplinary knowledge experts to find a consensus on the knowledge base that informs how future teachers are trained. The findings of the studies presented here offer material guidance for PETE programs on longstanding sub-disciplinary topics and emerging topics within the knowledge base, such as cultural competence. Ensuring TCs have expertise in this area can support the broader implementation of SHAPE America’s initiative related to social and emotional learning and physical activity promotion. While the Delphi projects have focused on undergraduate curriculum, there is a need to explore expert consensus for advanced degrees, including doctoral education. Using a structured Delphi approach, scholars can shape the training of future professionals by gathering expert consensus.
Remote Physical Activity Instruction: Recommendations for Enthusiasm and Feedback
Jessica L. Baldwin1, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Michael A. Hemphill, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Background/Purpose: The growth of digital learning in higher education, amplified by COVID-19, poses unique challenges for physical activity course instruction. These courses rely heavily on instructor enthusiasm and feedback but there’s a gap in our understanding of which practices work best to aid in student engagement and learning. However, despite guidance from SHAPE America’s 2022 instructional guidelines, clarity on effective remote teaching behaviors remains lacking. As remote learning continues to grow, research on effective instruction, especially in terms of enthusiasm and feedback in a digital context, becomes imperative for ensuring the quality of physical activity instruction. This case study aimed to identify the strategies instructors use and develop recommendations for enthusiasm and feedback in remote fitness-based physical activity courses.
Method: In Fall 2021, at a Midwest metropolitan university, data was collected from three introductory remote physical activity courses: Zumba (n = 1) and Yoga I (n = 2). This study’s participants involved two instructors, one part-time and one full-time, with 13 students participating across the courses. Utilizing a qualitative research design, data collection used four primary sources: observations, interviews, self-reflection, and focus groups. Observations were conducted on each of the courses using the Schatzman and Strauss model, with descriptive field notes capturing instructors’ behaviors, teaching methods, and cues related to enthusiasm and feedback. Using a semi-structured format, the part-time instructor was interviewed with pre-formulated open-ended questions about their experiences, behaviors, and techniques for displaying enthusiasm and delivering feedback. Given the researcher’s role as an instructor in the study, self-study research methods were used through reflections to analyze her own teaching practices. Lastly, focus group interviews, consisting of two to four participants from each remote physical activity course, used a semi-structured approach to discuss their instructor’s enthusiasm and feedback.
Analysis/Results: The analysis of the gathered data was directed by a Collaborative Qualitative Data Analysis (CQA) approach, emphasizing thematic analysis. For instructor enthusiasm, six themes were generated: nonverbal communication, instructor’s energy, vocal delivery, learning environment, instructor’s demeanor, and topic-related enthusiasm. Feedback yielded five themes: encouraging feedback, nonverbal cues, performance-related feedback, direction of feedback, and outside of class feedback. Yet, the final recommendations excluded two themes: enthusiasm linked to the learning environment and direction of feedback.
Conclusions: The findings identified key elements of enthusiasm and feedback for remote instruction in fitness-based physical activity classes. To achieve optimal instructional impact, these results can serve as a foundation, informing educators on how to harness the intricacies of each theme to enhance their instruction. While future research should expand on these insights on a broader scale to establish comprehensive guidelines, this study offers a significant initial understanding of the requisite instructional strategies for remote physical activity.
South Korean Teachers’ Delivery of the Hanaro Teaching Model
Seungsoo Baek, Matthew D. Curtner-SmithF1, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: Prior research has revealed that how and why teachers interpret and deliver an instructional model is strongly influenced by their occupational socialization (Curtner-Smith et al., 2008, 2021). Specifically, teachers can deliver the “full version” of a model, a “watered down” version, a version in which they take a “cafeteria approach” and choose components from a model that they include within traditional multi-activity units, and the “full+ version” of a model in which they expand the model beyond the full version. The purpose of this study was to build on that research and determine the impact of occupational socialization on South Korean teachers’ interpretation and delivery of the Hanaro Teaching (HT) model, a model designed to educate the whole child in the South Korean culture.
Method: Participants were eight middle school physical educators from five different regions of the country. Three were female and five male. They were purposefully selected because they had employed the HT model. Data were collected with five qualitative techniques. During formal interviews, teachers were asked to describe (a) how they interpreted and delivered HT and (b) how their acculturation (i.e., pre-PETE biography), professional socialization (i.e., PETE), and organizational socialization (i.e., work cultures and conditions) influenced their interpretation and delivery of HT. The teachers also completed a reflective journal on and wrote critical incidents about their HT during one semester. Further, they supplied film and documents illustrating their teaching of HT.
Analysis/Results: Data were reduced to themes with standard interpretive techniques. Findings revealed that two teachers delivered the full version of HT, three teachers delivered the full+ version, one teacher watered down the model, and two teachers took a cafeteria approach to HT. Unlike earlier studies (Curtner-Smith et al., 2008, 2021), findings showed that the teachers’ organizational socialization was key in shaping how all but one of the teachers interpreted and delivered the model. The teachers’ acculturation and professional socialization were mainly supplemental in that they led to the teachers’ forming teaching orientations that were at least somewhat compatible with and open to HT and, indirectly, provided some pedagogies, experiences, and modeling that the teachers could draw on when they attempted to employ the model.
Conclusions: The main practical implications of the study are concerned with teacher preparation. The fact that seven of the teachers employed some form of HT without any training in their formal PETE suggests that the model is not too difficult to comprehend and learn. Future efforts to include specific training in undergraduate PETE, however, should lead to more teachers employing the full and full+ versions of the model. The study also suggests that university faculty would be doing the profession a service by setting up and facilitating online or in-person HT communities. Such communities might be the primary mode by which some teachers learn about the model, while, for others, it will be supplemental to and supportive of their PETE, and perhaps serve to stave off the effects of the negative school cultures and unfavorable conditions in which some teachers work.
Student’s Willingness to Intervene in Bullying in After-school Programs
Mengyi Wei1, Marissa Schulke, Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Allison Poulos, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: After-school programs play a crucial role in fostering the physical and social well-being of children. Nevertheless, a substantial concern arises regarding the potential lack of oversight for bullying incidents in after-school program settings due to the less structured and limited staffing when compared to traditional educational programming. Specifically, instances of bullying seem to be more prevalent on the playground during recess and within after-school programs in comparison to the closely monitored classroom environment. The bystander’s response to bullying, including reporting incidents and supporting victims, plays a critical role in addressing this issue. The purpose of the study was to examine students’ willingness to intervene in bullying incidents and identify the influencing factors within the context of after-school programs.
Method: The cross-sectional study included a total of 55 students ranging from 3rd to 6th grade (31 girls and 24 boys), with ages between 8 and 12 years. Data were collected to examine student’s willingness to intervene in bullying, personal and social responsibility, self-efficacy in self-management and their perceived peer relationship in after-school programs. Survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and One-way ANOVA tests.
Analysis/Results: On a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), students reported a willingness score of 3.545 to intervene in bullying incidents. Among the four developmental levels of responsibility, participation and effort (r = .491, p < .01), self-direction (r = .410, p < .05) and caring and helping (r = .417, p < .01) showed positive correlations with students’ willingness to intervene in bullying in after-school programs. Additionally, students’ enjoyment (r = .448, p < .05) and self-efficacy in self-management (r = .562, p < .01) were also positively related to their willingness to intervene. However, there was no correlation between their perceived peer relationships and willingness to intervene. ANOVA results revealed that gender (F = 16.202, p < .01) significantly influenced the likelihood of students intervening in bullying incidents. Across all participants, scores on willingness to intervene ranged from 1.8 to 4.0. Notably, girls (M = 3.77, SD = .29) displayed a higher tendency to intervene compared to boys (M = 3.25, SD = .65). Additionally, grade level (F = 3.577, p < .05) had a significant impact on students’ willingness to intervene, with fifth graders (M = 3.13, SD = .70) showing the lowest scores and sixth graders (M = 3.77, SD = .23) demonstrating the highest levels of willingness to intervene in bullying.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that boys and students in higher grade levels may require increased support and attention in order to address bullying. This study also highlights the importance of creating an engaging environment where students enjoy the activities and exert effort. Furthermore, physical activity settings like after-school programs and school physical education can be effective in reducing and preventing bullying by promoting students’ personal and social responsibility. Educators and practitioners can employ pedagogical approaches such as cooperative learning and adventure-based learning, and work with existing social-emotional learning programs to foster students’ personal and social development.
Teacher Instructional Characteristics, Interest, and Learning in A Soccer Unit
Chunli Zhong1, Central China Normal University; Bo ShenF, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: As a motivational construct, interest has long been considered as a critical component of educational process in teaching and learning. There are two types of interest: individual and situational. Recently, situational interest (SI) has been further conceptualized as multidimensional including triggered-SI, maintained-SI-feeling, and maintained-SI-value. Although many researchers have investigated the impact of contextual factors on SI and learning, the role of teacher instructional characteristics, such as approachability, clarity, and connections to real life, in the interest development mostly remains unknown in physical education (PE). We designed this longitudinal study to examine possible antecedents and outcomes of SI in a PE soccer unit. There are three research questions: (1) the associations of teacher characteristics with SI; (2) the associations of SI with learning and individual interest development; and (3) the mediating role of SI in the connection between teacher instructional characteristics and learning and individual interest development.
Method: 99 seventh graders (48 girls, Mean age=12.7) from a typical public middle school in southcentral China participated in this study. The soccer unit was four-week long with 12 lessons (45 minutes per lesson). There were three waves of data collection. We administered pre-individual interest in soccer and knowledge test prior to the unit (T1). We then collected data on SI, perceived teacher instructional characteristics, and class engagement during the unit (T2). And we administered again the post-individual interest and knowledge test right after the unit (T3). While all relevant measures were originally developed in English, they had been back-translated into Chinese and validated in multiple studies. We conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses for the purpose of the study.
Analysis/Results: After controlling for pre-individual interest and knowledge level, teacher instructional characteristics were still significant predictors of SI. Teacher approachability predicted triggered-SI (β=0.44, p<0.001), instructional clarity predicted maintained-SI-value (β=0.39, p<0.001), and instructional connections to real life predicted both maintained-SI-feeling and maintained-SI-value (β=0.35, p<0.001; β=0.39, p<0.001, respectively). Then, maintained-SI-feeling and maintained-SI-value had significant impact on individual interest development (β=0.46, p<0.001; β=0.45, p<0.001). In terms of learning outcomes, all three components of SI significantly predicted students’ class engagement but with different strengths: triggered-SI (β=0.43, p<0.001), maintained-SI-value (β=0.58, p<0.001), and maintained-SI-feeling (β=0.68, p<0.001). Nevertheless, the predictive role of SI in knowledge gain seemed not direct. Finally, we employed a bootstrap method to assess the mediating effect of situational interest. Through the mediations of maintained-SI-feeling and maintained-SI-value, teachers’ instructional clarity and connections to real life were found to influence individual interest development. Similarly, triggered-SI demonstrated strong mediating effect on the relationship between teacher approachability and class engagement.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that teacher instructional characteristics outline SI in PE. In turn, SI promotes individual interest development and class engagement. With identified antecedents and outcomes of different components of SI, it is important to conceptualize SI as multidimensional for designing effective motivational strategies to enhance learning and engagement.
Technology Integration in Secondary Physical Education: An Activity Theory Approach
Sean Fullerton1, University of New Mexico; Christi Meyer, Lewiston High School Health & Physical Education Department; Jessica Shawley, Moscow Middle School
Background/Purpose: Scholars have called for more theory-guided research on integrating digital technologies in physical education (PE). To better understand how and why technology is used to accomplish learning outcomes, a holistic approach examining the processes that occur at both macro and micro levels should be considered. This study examined PLT4M (“Plat-form”), a Health and PE based software designed for PE teachers. Activity Theory provides a lens for examining technology use within a complex learning environment and can offer insights into current activity systems within PE where technology is used and implications for future ones. This study was grounded in Activity Theory (Engström, 1987), the first of its kind in PE research. The purpose of this study was to examine how one high school PE program uses PLT4M. Research questions include: 1) What are the learning activities and curriculum that include PLT4M? 2) How do individuals in the school community support the use of PLT4M within the PE program? 3) How do teachers describe their use and adoption of PLT4? 4) How do teachers describe challenges in implementing PLT4M? 5) How has the program’s use of PLT4M evolved?
Method: Qualitative case study design of one secondary PE program. Data sources included individual interviews, focus group interviews, observation and field notes, photographs and artifacts.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed inductively following Merriam & Tisdell (2015) four stage process to develop the following themes: 1) instruction and motivation, 2) curriculum evolution, 4) digital tools 5) flexibility and accessibility.
Conclusions: AT provides a holistic lens through which to evaluate, design, or enhance technology-mediated teaching and learning in PE. Future research with AT in PE is warranted.
The Analysis of the Pedagogical Practices in Online Physical Education
Sophie Waller1, University of Georgia; Bryan A. McCullickF, University of Georgia
Background/Purpose: Online education has continued to evolve at an exponential rate in the K-12 context, and online physical education (OLPE) has not been exempt from this growth (Daum, 2021). While many scholars have highlighted that the concept of OLPE is an oxymoron (Daum & Buschner, 2018), there still is a need to extend the research agenda. Specifically, scholars have urged a call to action regarding evidence-based pedagogical practices. The purpose of this study was to analyze OLPE teachers’ pedagogical practices. The three primary research questions guiding the study were: (a) what are the pedagogical practices of experienced OLPE teachers, (b) how are the pedagogical practices implemented in OLPE courses, and (c) why do experienced OLPE teachers use these pedagogical practices?
Method: The Community of Inquiry (Garrison, Archer, & Anderson, 1999) framework provided a theoretical foundation and was utilized to identify the pedagogical practices in the OLPE environment. Implementing a qualitative single-case study design, data were collected via semi-structured interviews, video-recorded observations, and document analysis. The participants of the study were composed of five experienced OLPE elementary teachers from one statewide virtual school in the southeast region of the United States.
Analysis/Results: A thematic analysis of the data generated the following findings, (a) Underscoring the ‘E’ in PE, (b) Minimizing Distance by Cultivating Connections, and (c) Navigating the Inherent Constraints and Demands. The findings indicated that although the OLPE teachers displayed a desire to emulate the traditional setting of PE, the pedagogical practices were bounded by the limitations of the online setting. Therefore, the cognitive and affective domains of learning were emphasized, with a limited number of practices implemented to develop a movement-orientated environment. The OLPE teachers were also required to engage in purposeful practices throughout their lessons to help establish connections and minimize the distance between the teacher and the student. Additionally, the OLPE teachers navigated the inherent obstacles of the online environment, the demands of the job, the school, and the expectation of the parents which all served as the impetus for why they did what they did.
Conclusions: The findings of this study have underscored the findings of earlier studies and confirmed scholars’ concerns regarding OLPE and its viability. More importantly, the findings have also provided an initial understanding of OLPE pedagogical practices, how they were implemented, and why OLPE teachers chose to implement them. However, the study of OLPE, its conduct, and best practices remain understudied given the seemingly increased prevalence of OLPE.
The Effect of the Hybrid Pedagogical Model on Prek-12 Students’ Learning with a Central Focus on Motivation
Baofu Wang1 ([email protected]), Western Illinois University; Longxi Li, University of Washington; Yang Liu, Wuhan University of Technology
Background/Purpose: Studies to examine the effect of the hybrid pedagogical model (HPM) on students’ learning have been burgeoning in recent years (González-Víllora et al., 2019). Students’ motivation is believed to be the contributing factors for physical literacy (Whitehead, 2010). Therefore, a systematic review and meta-analysis to synthesize the effects of HPM on student learning, particularly on motivational learning outcomes, is warranted. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to discern the research trends and evaluate the effectiveness of the hybrid pedagogical model on student learning with a particular emphasis on students’ motivational learning outcomes.
Method: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols, a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to search for relevant articles from SportDiscus, ERIC, Pub Med, APA PsycInfo, and Google Scholar. The first and the second author assessed all the studies independently. We reached 100% agreement on inclusion assessment and 95% on quality assessment. Data were analyzed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Software (Blostat Inc., Englewood, NJ).
Analysis/Results: A total of 17 studies, all are moderate to high quality, met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. No potential high risk publication bias was detected. In terms of underpinning pedagogical model, Sport Education (SE) and Game-centered approach HPM were the most frequently employed model in the included studies (n = 11, 65%). Most studies employed quantitative research methods (n = 14, 82%). Students’ motivational variables were the most frequently investigated outcome variables (n = 7, 41%). Self-determination Theory (SDT) was the most prevalent theoretical framework used in these studies (n = 6, 86%). Given that homogeneity test indicated substantial heterogeneity among the included studies (Q= 118.65, df = 13, I2 = 89.04%, Tau2 = 0.25), a random-effect model was used in this literature review. With regard to efficacy of the included studies, a medium to large effect on students’ learning outcomes was found (d = 0.64, 95% CI [0.34, 0.95]). More specifically, a large effect of the hybrid model on motivational outcomes was found (d = 0.95, 95% CI [0.82, 1.09]). A medium to large effect of studies using hybrid Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) and SE model was found (d = 0.73, 95% CI [0.27, 1.18]). On average, net/wall games interventions (d = 1.51, 95% CI [1.19, 1.84]) were found to have a higher effect size than invasion games (d = 0.84, 95% CI [0.34, 1.34]). Studies grounded in the SDT showcased a higher overall effect size (d = 0.79, 95% CI [0.16, 1.41]) than those based on Achievement-Goal Theory (d = 0.37, 95% CI [-0.07, 0.80]). Lastly, a significantly larger effect size was found among girls (d = 1.22, 95% CI [0.73, 1.71]) than boys (d = 1.02, 95% CI [0.62, 1.42]) in relation to self-determined variables (z = 6.93, p < .001).
Conclusions: The studies indicated that the hybridization of different pedagogical models could potentially facilitate students’ learning. Future studies need to further investigate potential moderating factors on students’ learning using HPM other than SE/Game Centered Approach.
The Effect of the Hybrid Pedagogical Model on Prek-12 Students’ Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta Analysis with a Special Focus on Students’ Game Performance, Physical Activity, and Physical Fitness
Baofu Wang1, Western Illinois University; Longxi Li, University of Washington; Yang Liu, Wuhan University of Technology
Background/Purpose: A growing number of studies exploring potential hybridization of various pedagogical models (e.g., through integrating the Game-Centered Approach with other models) has focused on improving student-centered learning (Shen & Shao, 2022), including game performance (GP), physical activity (PA), and physical fitness (PF). Given that, a study to synthesize the existing body of research evidence is warranted.The purpose of this study was to identify the research patterns and trend of the existing research on hybrid pedagogical model (HPM) and to examine the efficacy of the HPM-based intervention on student learning, with a special focus on GP, PF, and PA related outcomes.
Method: The literature search was conducted using an online search engine of one public university in the U.S. based on five databases, namely SportDiscus, ERIC, Pub Med, APA PsycInfo, and Google Scholar. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols and a set of predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Inter-rater reliability and quality assessment were conduct and two authors reached 100% and 95% agreement respectively.
Analysis/Results: Upon completion of the literature search, 17 studies of moderate to high quality were identified. A funnel plot demonstrated no evidence of potential publication bias. Among Sport Education (SE) and game-centered approach (n = 11, 65%), SE and Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) hybrid model was the predominant model (n = 8, 47%), followed by SE and Step Game Approach model (n = 2, 12%), and SE and Invasion Game Competence Model (n = 1, 6%). More than half of the studies were conducted in Spain (n = 10, 59%). Most of the studies were conducted at junior high school level (n = 9, 53%). The majority of the included studies had less than or equal to 10 lessons (n = 7, 41%). Pre-post single group design was the most frequently used research design (n = 7, 41%). The homogeneity test revealed significant heterogeneity among the included studies (Q= 118.65, df = 13, I2 = 89.04%, Tau2 = 0.25), leading to the use of a random-effect model for the meta-analysis. Regarding intervention efficacy, a small to medium overall effect on GP was observed (d = 0.37, 95% CI [0.22, 0.51]). A medium to large overall effect on PA and PF was found (d = 0.58, 95% CI [0.37, 0.78]). In addition, a significantly higher overall effect size was found among girls (d = 0.97, 95% CI [0.71, 1.24]) compared to boys (d = 0.54, 95% CI [0.24, 0.85]) in terms of game performance and understanding of game-related variables (z = 7.76, p < .001).
Conclusions: Hybrid pedagogical model could be a viable tool to enhance students GP and improve their PA and PF. The findings derived from this literature review point to a need for more rigorous research methodologies in future studies to ensure the quality of results, including but not limited to randomized controlled trials, utilizing larger sample sizes, and incorporating long-term follow-up assessments.
The Effects of Prior Knowledge on Cognitive Engagement and Knowledge Gain in Physical Education
Jihyun Song1, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; En-Hua Chan, National Taiwan Normal University; Alexander Clayton Moss, Chaojie Shang, Alireza Hosseini, Hamid Amni, Ang Chen, University of North Carolina – Greensboro
Background/Purpose: Students are expected to engage in cognitive tasks to know what/ how/ when to perform physical activity (PA) for health benefits (Ennis, 2015). Cognitive engagement is the process by which students acquire knowledge. Cognitive engagement in physical education (PE) helps students enhance knowledge gain (Deng & Chen, 2022; Wang et al., 2019) and in-class PA participation (Deng & Chen, 2023). Students bring into class their prior knowledge that would impact the quality of cognitive engagement (Vosniadou, 2007). The purpose of the study was to determine the nature of the relationship between prior knowledge, cognitive engagement, and knowledge gain in learning caloric-balanced living through testing a theoretical a priori model.
Method: Ninth graders (n= 543) from 10 high schools in a southeastern U.S. state participated in the Science of Essential Balance (SEB) curriculum intervention during the 2022-2023 academic year. The students learned caloric balance knowledge in 10 lessons using a student workbook that provided task guides with cognitive/PA combined learning experiences. The cognitive engagement intensity was pre-determined by the descriptive, relational, and reasoning task structure. Students’ cognitive engagement performances were collected using validated grading rubrics. Validated knowledge tests were administered prior to and after learning the curriculum to assess students’ prior knowledge and knowledge gain.
Analysis/Results: To test the a priori model, a path analysis was conducted using Mplus 8.6 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2021). Based on recommended multiple cut-off criteria procedure to determine the Goodness-OF-Fit indices (Hu & Bentler, 1999), the analysis confirmed, in general, the relationship hypothesized in the a priori model between prior knowledge, cognitive engagement, and knowledge gain (χ2= 3.93, df= 1, p=.05, RMSEA= .07 with 90% C.I. [.01, .16], CFI= .99, TLI= .97, SRMR= .02). Prior knowledge directly contributed to descriptive task performances (β= .31, p< .001. The contribution led to knowledge gain through reasoning task performances (β= .03, p= .005) and both relational and reasoning task performances (β= .02, p= .005). In addition, performances on descriptive and relational tasks, directly and indirectly, contributed to their performances of reasoning tasks.
Conclusions: The findings of the study verified the contribution of prior knowledge to knowledge gain in learning caloric-balanced living through cognitive engagement. Relevant prior knowledge enabled the students to perform well in the descriptive tasks, which further contributed to knowledge gain via effective engagement in the relational and reasoning tasks. It could be concluded that relevant prior knowledge about nutrition and exercise science enabled the students to effectively engage in cognitive tasks with in-class PA participation, which contributed to successful learning of additional knowledge. The findings suggest that relevant prior knowledge should be recognized as a precedent in learning knowledge in PE. These findings imply that PE teachers can plan tasks that take advantage of students’ prior knowledge to enhance knowledge gain.
The Impact of National Policies on Physical Education Curriculum and Teachers in China
Fangyuan Ju1, Yangzhou University; Tanjian Liang, Central Washington University; Xiaoping Fan, SUNY Cortland; Mengyun Zhao, Yangzhou University
Background/Purpose: The High School Entrance Examination (HSEE) is an annual academic assessment in China to differentiate student academic performance. This nationwide exam encompasses various subjects, including Physical Education (PE). The PE policy developed for the HSEE is progressively being standardized, enhanced, and informed by imperative research efforts, serving as a guiding framework to foster students’ holistic development. This policy has shown a positive influence on improving the implementation of PE, leading to an enhancement in students’ physical fitness and overall well-being (Mao, 2022; Hu, 2023). Therefore, this study aimed to explore the impact of China’s PE policy on the HSEE, the evolving policy measures on school PE, and the professionalism of middle school PE teachers—the social-ecological model as a theoretical framework to guide this study.
Method: A grounded qualitative approach was employed for this study. The participants were eight middle school PE teachers. Data sources were collected through semi-structured interviews, class observational notes, and documents. Researchers adopted NVivo software to conduct open, axial, and selective coding (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Trustworthiness for this study was peer check, prolonged engagement, and expert check. Inter-researcher and intra-researcher mutual agreement were all greater than 0.80.
Analysis/Results: Two main themes emerged in this study: 1) the PE policy for HSEE has led to new changes in middle school PE concerning program objectives, curriculum, instruction, assessment, and resources, and 2) it has also brought about new requirements for the professionalism of middle school PE teachers in terms of educational concepts, content knowledge, teaching skills, and scientific research and innovation.
Conclusions: The execution of the middle school PE policy has progressively clarified the objectives of the secondary school PE program in China, which has positively impacted teachers’ teaching practices and students’ performance in PE classrooms. This PE policy gives teachers and students a distinct direction and a standardized benchmark. Within China’s HSEE, middle school PE teachers have experienced an augmented sense of belonging to their profession, fostering a commitment to lifelong learning and the pursuit of continuing professional development (CPD). The findings of this study can offer valuable insights for other nations to advocate for policymakers in developing a PE policy that promotes physical education in schools.
The Impact of the Global Pandemic on Teaching Physical Education
Xiaoping Fan1, SUNY Cortland; Sheri M. Treadwell, The College at Brockport, SUNY; Catherine Cardina, SUNY Buffalo State College; Taemin Ha, Queens College, City University of New York
Background/Purpose: As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, educators around the world shifted to online or hybrid teaching formats for the remainder of the 2020 school year and most, if not all the of the 2020-21 school year. Physical Education teachers reported several challenges and eventual successes teaching in the new formats. For example, one challenge to moving to online learning was the lack of professional development training for teachers (Moustakas & Robrade, 2022). In addition, many physical educators were unfamiliar with Learning Management Systems (LMS) (i.e., Moodle), resulting in a steep learning curve to master the technology (Hatip, 2020). Research by Centeio et al. (2021) found that the lack of accountability for student learning was a common theme with online learning but noted that once physical education teachers understood how to effectively use technology, they were able to successfully engage with their students in new and inventive ways. While research has examined the impact of COVID-19 on teachers’ instruction during this global pandemic, few studies have been conducted to investigate the physical education classroom after the pandemic. The purpose of this study was to examine how the COVID-19 pandemic changed teaching practices in current physical education with regard to curriculum, assessment, technology, and environment.
Method: A mixed method design (Creswell, 2009) was utilized in this study to explore the current physical education climate post COVID-19. A survey was administered which contained multiple choice questions followed by open-ended questions for more detailed explanations. The survey was sent to physical education teachers (N=2,445) who were members of the New York State Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (NYS AHPERD). Among those participants, 94 physical education teachers completed this survey. Descriptive statistics were used to describe participants’ beliefs about how the pandemic has changed their teaching practices in physical education. Teachers’ responses to open-ended questions were analyzed using open and axial coding.
Analysis/Results: After preliminary analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data, findings of this study suggest some key insights regarding the impact of COVID-19 on physical education. The results indicated that approximately half of the respondents made revisions to their curriculum following the pandemic. As a result, there were noticeable changes in the focus of the curriculum, with a decrease in emphasis on psychomotor and cognitive learning, a moderate increase in social emotional learning, and a notable increase in emphasizing mental health. Concurrently or similarly or likewise, respondents reported increased assessments in the affective learning domain. Most teachers reported that they remediated motor skills due to the lower skill levels observed in students post pandemic. Additionally, the teachers shared that they continued to use some of the technology (e.g., Google Docs, LMS, virtual meetings, etc.), while declining to use others (e.g., pedometers, heart rate monitors, Plickers, etc.).
Conclusions: The findings of this study hold the potential to provide valuable insights into physical education curriculum and instruction, aiding physical education teachers in effectively implementing current physical education programs to meet the needs of their students.
The Social Ecology of Supervision in a Physical Education Early Field Experience
Nicholas Scott Washburn1, Western Washington University; Victoria N. Shiver, University of New Mexico; Kevin Andrew RichardsF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Early field experiences have been recognized as critical components of physical education teacher education programs. Within these experiences, the preservice teacher (PT), cooperating teacher (CT), and university supervisor (US) comprise what has been referred to as a community of practice, each possessing an influential role. What remains to be examined is how the relationships among these entities develop throughout the course of the field-based components. Thus, couched within occupational socialization theory, the purpose of this phenomenological study was to examine specific behaviors demonstrated by the members of this community of practice that influence the quality of the relationships among them.
Method: Participants included 14 PTs (11 males), 8 CTs (8 males), and the three authors served as USs. The PTs (12 Caucasian, 2 African American) were in their final semester prior to student teaching. The CTs (all Caucasian) and were split evenly between elementary (n = 4) and secondary (n = 4) schools that were located across a city (n = 4) and county (n = 4) school district near the university. The early field experience involved three one-hour teaching episodes per week for 10 weeks. Data were collected via autobiographical narratives, weekly online discussion prompts, field notes from the USs, and semi-structured interviews.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using standard interpretive processes. Inductively, open, axial and selective coding provided a codebook that was then pilot tested against previously uncoded data. Once coding was completed, we met to finalize the codebook and create a thematic structure to best represent the data. Strategies to ensure trustworthiness included peer debriefing, researcher triangulation, an audit trail, and a search for discrepant cases. The final thematic structure revealed that CTs support a positive relationship with their PTs by demonstrating a concern for their development as teachers and seeking to make the PT comfortable, whereas they hinder their relationship by making them feel unwelcome and withholding constructive feedback. Preservice teachers can support a positive relationship with their CTs by being open to communication and exuding a zest for teaching. Alternatively, PTs can hinder relationships with their CTs by demonstrating complacency and not being receptive to feedback. Finally, USs can support positive relationships with PTs and CTs by clearly communicating fair and reasonable expectations. They can also detract from positive relationships within the community of practice by offering ambiguous expectations and presenting as inflexible on such expectations.
Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that the US assumes a highly important position within the early field experience community of practice. Those USs who also teach methods classes would be well suited to emphasize to the PTs in their charge the importance of communication and ensuring a passion for teaching. Also unearthed and underscored is the importance of the US to clarify expectations between the University program and the hosting school in the interest of attenuating intra-role conflict, particularly for the PT involved.
The Teacher Educator Technology Competencies: PETE Faculty Beliefs and Implementation
Kason O’Neil1, East Tennessee State University; Jennifer M. Krause, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: The Teacher Educator Technology Competencies (TETCs; SITE, 2017) were designed to provide teacher education programs with an overarching framework on how to prepare future educators to successfully navigate the ever-evolving task of technology integration within their future classroom (Burrows et al., 2021). Currently, there are very few published research studies examining the implementation and assessment of the TETCs within teacher education and none in the field of physical education teacher education (PETE). This quantitative study surveyed a sample of PETE faculty in regard to their self-efficacy, current implementation, and overall perceived importance for each of the 12 TETCs.
Method: PETE faculty members from across the United States were invited to participate in an online survey related to their beliefs about and implementation of the TETCs. Using Self-Efficacy Theory as a theoretical framework, an online questionnaire was developed and distributed to faculty asking them to rate their level of agreement (1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree) for each of the 12 TETCs specific to their (a) self-efficacy to implement, (b) regular implementation, and (c) beliefs regarding their importance within their respective PETE programs.
Analysis/Results: A total of 47 PETE faculty members completed the survey. Of individuals (N= 20) completing demographic questions, a majority identified as full professor rank (66%), men (61%), and White (72%). They also reported an average of 17 years of experience as a PETE faculty member For all of the 12 TETCs combined, faculty rated their confidence to implement (M= 4.33/SD= .39) and how important (M= 4.43/SD= .37) they thought each TETC was for their PETE program very high, but showed a statistically significant lower score on their current implementation (M= 4.17/SD= .39) of each TETC in their PETE program (p’s<.001). When comparing each of the TETCs, faculty had had the highest overall self-efficacy and implementation for TETC #6 (using appropriate technology tools for assessment, M=4.04, SD= .27) and TETC #4 (using online tools to enhance teaching and learning, M=3.94, SD= .20). In slight contrast, faculty confidence and importance showed to be the lowest for TETC #8 (using technology to connect globally, M=3.24, SD= .32) and TETC #11 (engaging in leadership and advocacy for the use of technology, M=3.43, SD= .29).
Conclusions: Overall, faculty are generally confident in implementing the TETCs and feel they are important for their PETE programs. Yet, they reported lower levels of implementation within their PETE programs. Further research is needed to determine barriers and facilitators to increasing the implementation of the TETCs within PETE programs.
The Teaching Sustainability of Physical Education Teachers Across the Career Cycle
Douglas W. Ellison1, Kent State University; Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: Teaching sustainability is conceptualized as the capacity of an individual to emotionally self-regulate and positively endure life’s stressors by grounding decisions in personal values that align with one’s long-term goals. Teaching sustainability includes the concepts of psychological flexibility (PF), teaching resiliency (tRES), and a sense of purpose (SOP). The constructs of teaching sustainability have demonstrated the ability to accurately predict physical education (PE) teachers’ intent to remain teaching in high-poverty schools (Kern, Ellison, Killian, et al., 2020). However, minimal research has been conducted that compares how the constructs of teaching sustainability are influenced throughout a teacher’s career cycle.
Method: The 26 participants were identified from a random national sample of physical educators working in high-poverty schools representing each SHAPE America regional district. Interpretivist philosophical assumptions guided this project. Insofar as reality is flowing, multiple, and reliant on the meanings given to events and practices, and knowledge is formed, subject to divers’ interpretations (Coyle, Gorczynski, and Gibson, 2017). Therefore, the subjective experiences of a teacher’s teaching sustainability throughout the career cycle were sought. Teachers first completed the teaching sustainability questionnaire (TSQ) and then were invited to talk about: (a) their biography and details regarding their career, (b) work-life tensions, and (c) motivation and commitment. Multiple investigators were involved in data collection and analysis to minimize potential biases. To enhance the credibility of findings, informal and formal member checks were employed. Transcripts were initially coded inductively and then deductively using Fessler and Christensen’s (1992) teacher career-cycle model as a guiding framework.
Analysis/Results: Results indicate that the participants with higher TSQ scores had central values that regularly showed at the behavioral and cognitive level on a day-to-day basis. The teachers with a stronger sense of purpose were able to maintain balance between their professional, emotional, social, and motivational lives and proved to be the key to developing and maintaining their capacities throughout the career cycle. The teachers in this study that were able to recognize and capitalize on situations in their lives more efficiently than their counterparts, were able to navigate each stage of the teacher career cycle more effectively.
Conclusions: The participants worked in an organizational environment where the constraints of poverty were present. The teachers with a stronger sense of purpose were able facilitate positive responses when threats to their professional, emotional, social, and/or motivational lives were encountered which aided in their ability to bounce back and be resilient. The teachers with a strong sense of purpose demonstrated a sustained commitment to self-improvement and student success by implementing effective teaching practices, continually seeking ways in which to improve teaching effectiveness, and by their ability to positively cope with stressors and manage their emotions effectively in interactions with colleagues and students. More importantly, a teacher’s elevated score on the TSQ appears to have a direct effect on their ability to navigate difficult circumstances at different stages of the teacher career cycle. Utilizing the TSQ throughout the teacher career cycle may be an important factor in recruiting and retaining teachers.
Training Teacher Educators through Practice-Based Teacher Education
Meghan Dennis1, Oleg A. SinelnikovF, Jacob T. Peterson, Seungsoo Baek, Wonhee Lee, Natalia D. Molska, Adam M Wolecki, Ford Patronas, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: Effective teacher education necessitates a focused development of highly qualified teacher educators (Darling-Hammond, 2021; Russell et al., 2016). One of the contemporary approaches that assists in such development of teacher educators is practice-based teacher education (PBTE; Ward et al., 2020). PBTE emphasizes the significance of fostering teacher decision-making and reflective practices through settings that simulate authentic teaching (Ward et al., 2021, 2023; Ward & Cho, 2020). Furthermore, scholars recommend that future physical education teacher educators benefit from applied mentorship training during their doctoral physical education (D-PETE) training (Richards et al., 2018; Richards & Sinelnikov, 2019). While it has been shown that effective mentoring relationships can promote learner’s growth (Johnson-Bailey & Cervero, 2004; Long, 1997), and that PBTE can prepare pre-service teachers with the skills for adaptive teaching (Lampert et al., 2013), there has been a lack of research examining how doctoral students benefit from PBTE. The purpose of this study was to examine D-PETE students’ experiences with PBTE as they mentored pre-service teachers during a methods course and sequential early field experience. Social Constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1986) served as a theoretical framework for the study.
Method: Five graduate students (3 males and 2 females; average age = 32.4 (SD=4.34) enrolled in a graduate level course at a major university in the Southeastern U.S. served as participants for this study. Within the course, participants served as mentors for pre-service teachers over a 16-week period. During this time, pre-service teachers participated in a secondary methods course and subsequent early field experience. Data collection consisted of formal interviews, stimulated recall interviews, focus group interviews, and document analysis of participants reflection journals (Patton, 2015).
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using thematic analysis with the purpose of extracting common categories and themes (Patton, 1990). Trustworthiness and credibility were established through member checks, researcher and data triangulation and searching for negative and discrepant cases. As part of the mentorship process, all participants in the study focused on the pedagogical content knowledge and effective teaching behaviors of their mentees. Results of this study indicated that participants developed their own professional knowledge and skill sets while serving as mentors. Initial focuses were “guided by previous experiences” of mentors, but over time, they would “redirect their focus” by relying on peers to fill knowledge gaps. The focus on applying shared knowledge and skills in real settings allowed participants to “figure out what was expected” as a teacher educator through situated learning.
Conclusions: This study is the first to date to examine how PBTE influences D-PETE students’ experiences when mentoring pre-service teachers. This study demonstrated that PBTE allows D-PETE students the opportunity to develop skills sets and applied knowledge in settings that best mimic real settings. Additionally, in congruence with social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1986), participants were able to acquire transferable knowledge and skills through shared experiences within the mentoring process that will further develop their own self-actualization to “inform [their] future practice.”
Trials and Tribulations from Integrating Sport Education Season with Incarcerated Youth
Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF1, Jennifer Jacobs, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: Research exploring incarcerated youth is scarcely underrepresented. Although prison populations continue to grow at an exponential rate, there are a limited number of programs worldwide working toward rehabilitating this vulnerable population. While scholarship widely acknowledges sport and physical activity as being ideal vessels for promoting both physiological and psychological health, none of these programs employ a multi-faceted approach that utilize sport to develop life skills, education, and interpersonal skills.
Project FLEX (Fitness, Leadership EXperience) is a sport-based leadership program for incarcerated juveniles. The aims of Project FLEX are to provide opportunities for adjudicated youth to participate in regular physical activity while simultaneously developing their sense of personal and social responsibility. One of the ways this interdisciplinary approach can be realized is by utilizing the Sport Education pedagogical model. Sport Education is one of the most widely used and heavily researched pedagogical approach in physical education, yet to date, has never been incorporated with incarcerated populations. The primary objective of this approach is to create competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspeople, accomplished by delivering an authentic sport experience (called a season). Each season emphasizes fair play, festivity, team affiliation, and formal competition to increase engagement, enjoyment, and interpersonal relations, which are all especially important with incarcerated populations.
While the benefits of Sport Education are widely known in a wide variety of contexts (i.e., physical education, before/after school, summer camps), little is known about how this instructional approach would translate within a maximum-security youth detention center. Therefore, the purpose of this presentation is to provide a descriptive account of how a pickleball seasons was implemented, offer detailed strategies of what features to over or under emphasize, and provide preliminary physical activity, fitness, social behavior, and psychomotor data.
Method: The study was conducted in one maximum security juvenile detention centers, located in Midwest portion of the United States. Participants were 8 male youth (Mage = 18.2 years), all of whom participated in a pickle ball season. Data collection was administered prior to, and at the conclusion of the season and consisted of, height, weight, muscle strength assessments, PACER test, systematic observation, skills and gameplay assessment.
Analysis/Results: A series of ANOVA’s revealed significant differences across time for skills assessment, gameplay evaluation, and BMI. Lastly, average step count across the unit was statistically higher as the season progressed, with peaks during the regular season and culminating event.
Conclusions: The primary aim of this presentation was to provide a descriptive account of how this two Sport Education season was implemented and what features should be over and under emphasized. In this iteration, emphasizing team affiliation, fair play, and a variety of different structured formal competition was critical to success. However, limiting the exposure to participant officiating and deemphasizing the importance traditional sport education roles aided its success. Specific to the other aims, preliminary data demonstrates health-related fitness marker improvement, decreased anti-social behaviors during programming, and improved psychomotor skill development over the course of each season. Future research exploring participants enjoyment, or longitudinal impact of recidivism would be extremely beneficial.
Utilizing Participatory Action Research to promote Social and Emotional Learning
Donal Howley1, Towson University; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina – Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro
Background/Purpose: There is a recognized need to enact more participatory and transformative forms of curricula and pedagogy promoting Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) to develop critically informed and engaged students (Jagers et al., 2019). Yet, research focusing on explicit implementation of SEL in high school Physical Education (PE) involving students, and utilizing such approaches is scarce. Utilizing social constructivist learning theory and CASEL’s SEL Framework (2015), the purpose of this study is to present how high school students utilized Participatory Action Research (PAR) to promote experiences and understandings of SEL. Two research questions guided the research process: 1) How did students respond to, interpret, and enact these methods? 2) What contribution did the enactment of these methods have in promoting experiences and understandings of SEL?
Method: The study utilized a variety of traditional and innovative PAR methods including personal biographies, timelines, digital and written reflections, and photovoice. These methods were implemented by two teachers with their respective students during a 15-week course involving 20 75-minute lessons, designed to intentionally accomplish SEL competencies and skills through aligning contemporary theory and frameworks with established best practices. 43 ninth/tenth grade students (30 girls/13 boys, aged 14–15) from the two PE classes consented for researchers to retrospectively collect their work for data analysis, and collectively participated in five one-on-one and 16 focus group interviews reflecting on their experiences of utilizing PAR after the course. The Miles, Huberman, and Saldana Framework for Qualitative Data Analysis (2014) was implemented involving both deductive and inductive combinations of comparative and thematic analysis.
Analysis/Results: Three overarching themes with accompanying subthemes are presented: Enlight; Camera; and Action! Findings indicate students exhibited varied understandings and limited contextualized experiences of SEL within and outside of PE prior to the study. The explicit and intentional emphasis on the conceptually targeted competencies and skills when utilizing PAR within and outside of classes allowed students to distinguish between and develop more uniform understandings and experiences of SEL. Facilitating students with the opportunity to identify and share their previous and evolving understandings and experiences of SEL through PE and physical activity in their wider worlds helped better inform and contextualize ways in which they participated in PE and physical activity inside and outside of school, and how they might continue to do so in future.
Conclusions: Utilizing PAR led to an explicit and intentional focus on SEL that in turn facilitated students’ further understanding and appreciation of the role others and emotions and SEL competencies and skills played in their participation and learning within PE and more broadly in their physically active lifestyles beyond school. The utilization of innovative participatory, open-ended, and reflective approaches to teaching and learning in high school PE can assist in the accomplishment of SEL more comprehensively and facilitate students in acquiring and applying the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be physically active and develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions (CASEL, 2015).
“I Am Important”: Navigating the Graduate Assistant Role through Self-Study
Katie A. Juarez1, University of Wyoming; Victoria N. Shiver, University of New Mexico
Background/Purpose: Graduate students typically feel high levels of stress and anxiety during their programs. This experience can be compounded by feelings of isolation and imposter syndrome. Due to advisor-related factors such as power dynamics or varied identity traits, however, a mentor that is outside of the institution may provide added support. Self-selection of mentors has the potential to allow graduate students to seek input from individuals that have shared lived experiences, similar interests in terms of research and teaching, and compatibility to allow for ease of asking and answering questions openly, reducing fear of potential repercussions. The purpose of the present work is to explore the development of a graduate assistant through her engagement with self-study and added outside mentoring.
Method: The present work was conducted by Kara, a first-year master’s student in a midwestern PETE program. Kara served as graduate assistant, receiving funding for coordinating a multi-district afterschool program. Self-study of teacher education practices (S-STEP) served as a guiding process for the study and for developing a mentoring relationship and critical friendship between herself and Elizabeth. Elizabeth was an early career faculty member at a separate institution with experience in research and practice in the role Kara was fulfilling. Qualitative data were collected through journaling and critical friend discussions over one academic year. Kara wrote 20 journal entries centered on her experiences as a graduate student and program coordinator. Elizabeth read each entry and provided comments to probe Kara to think more deeply about key points. A total of 13 critical friend discussions occurred. Conversations delved deeply into journal reflection topics and discussions around personal and professional goals and progress. Each meeting was an average of 45 minutes, audio-recorded, and transcribed.
Analysis/Results: Qualitative analysis was done collaboratively by progressively moving through open and axial coding, development and testing of a codebook, and presentation of themes. Weekly meetings and ongoing journal entries occurred throughout analysis. Coding was guided by the idea of turning points which indicated periods of time that were meaningful to Kara’s experience and resulted in a shift in her perspective and/or practice. During her year as a program coordinator, Kara’s experiences included 3 turning points guided by Elizabeth’s mentoring: (a) adjusting to new beginnings; (b) learning the ropes and settling in; (3) being established and connected. Kara’s initially felt lonely in her role and took time adjusting to life in a new location, relying on support from others and facing changes in her coordinating role. Eventually, she felt a sense of accomplishment and established.
Conclusions: The S-STEP process with an outside mentor aided Kara in learning more about herself and adjusting to a new role. The importance of this research is to highlight the adjustments made by a 1st year graduate student and the importance of having support, particularly through strong mentorship and reflection. We recommend new graduate students and first-time program coordinators examine how their roles impact their role management and influence their well-being, and that they find suitable mentors that can assist in their development.
“No One Works in Isolation Here”: The Socialization of Physical Education Teachers into a Professional Learning Community
Zack Beddoes1, Bringham Young University; Jenna Starck, UW – La Crosse; Rachyl Jane Stephenson, University of Wisconsin La Crosse
Background/Purpose: Professional learning communities ([PLCs]; DuFour et al., 2016) are increasingly utilized as an effective framework for continuous professional development. Within these structures teacher teams focus intently on increasing student learning while engaging in a results-oriented, collaborative culture (DuFour et al., 2008). Though PLC schools ideally include all content areas, there is little research examining the socialization of physical education teachers within this space (Klatt et al., 2022). Emerging research suggests that physical educators who invest in PLCs experience decreased marginalization and enhanced perceived mattering in the school community (Beddoes et al., 2022). Using occupational socialization theory (Richards et al., 2014) and social capital theory (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992), the purpose of this study was to explore how physical education teachers are socialized into a school-based PLC during their induction years.
Method: Two physical education teachers and four school administrators at a nationally recognized elementary “PLC school” in the Eastern United States participated in this study. Using a single instrumental case study design (Stake, 1995), data collection included: formal dyadic interviews, focus groups, informal interviews, documents, and formal observations. A single instrumental case study design was used for the present study as it focuses on connections, such as relationships, and can provide insights into an issue rather than exploring a specific and/or unique phenomenon as would be seen in an intrinsic case study. An instrumental case study design gleans insights from a specific bounded case to enhance understanding of the larger research questions.
Analysis/Results: The qualitative data analysis software ATLAS.ti was utilized to assist with the content analysis for the study. Once data were collected and transcribed, the files were imported into the ATLAS.ti software. The interviews, observation field notes, and collected documents were then systematically reviewed to identify emerging themes related to the theoretical constructs.
Attribute coding was performed in the first cycle of the data analysis to document descriptive information about the various components of the case. Axial coding was employed in the second cycle to strategically reorganize and reassemble the data by eliminating redundant codes while ascertaining categories and sub-categories (Saldaña, 2016). Data analysis reflected an inductive (allowing themes to emerge naturally) and deductive (themes informed by the theoretical constructs), iterative process (Richards et al., 2018).
Themes included: (1) Dispersed and Inclusive Leadership, (2) Teacher Empowerment, and (c) Culture of Belonging with associated subthemes.
Conclusions: The findings from this study carry three significant implications for the physical education profession: (1) meaningful and ongoing vertical collaboration between the physical education team and school administrators can be crucial for increasing local advocacy and reducing perceived marginalization, (2) physical educators must be willing and able to collaborate horizontally within and across content areas, and (3) meaningful PLC experiences are based on the cultivation of strong social capital. With intentional preparation for and engagement within PLCs, physical educators can experience empowerment and belonging within the school culture.