Lunar phase as a dynamic landscape of fear factor affecting elephant crop raiding potential

Abstract

Risk assessment relies on cost–benefit analysis by prey species in relation to predator behavior. The lunar cycle can have strong influences on the way that predator and prey species behave in their environment as light levels can influence activity patterns. By examining how lunar phase influences behavior, we may be able to better predict instances of human–wildlife conflict. As part of the Elephants and Sustainable Agriculture in Kenya project, over 5 years of study have been dedicated to mitigating human–elephant conflict in the Kasigau Wildlife Corridor in southern Kenya, focusing on the construction of deterrent fences and the collection of environmental data in and bordering the Rukinga Wildlife Sanctuary. Elephant presence around crop fields was hypothesized to have a negative relationship with lunar light levels because of an increase in perceived risk from typically greater human activity with moonlight, and a positive relationship with increased darkness during the waning moon phases. The lunar phase data were compared to elephant presence within 12 m of experimental crop fields along the boundary of their wild habitat and human agricultural land to provide insight for potential crop raiding events. Elephants were present significantly less during the full and gibbous moon phases when compared to the new moon phase, and significantly more during the new and waning moon phases. Our findings are being shared with the farmers living in the KWC and may be useful to others living in high HEC areas by providing a form of early warning system that also may have broader applications in the mitigation of other human–wildlife interactions.

HIGHLIGHTS

Dynamic landscape of fear provides novel insight on elephant behavior near agricultural lands with applications for conservation strategies.

Key Words:

• animal behavior
• conservation behavior
• human–wildlife conflict
• human–wildlife interactions
• landscape of fear
• lunar cycle
• risk assessment

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Funding for this project was provided in part by the International Elephant Foundation, Western Kentucky University, and The Earthwatch Institute. We thank our colleagues at Wildlife Works, the Elephants and Bees Team from Save the Elephants, and the Kenya Wildlife Service. The authors thank the farmers of Sasenyi village for their work with us on this project. Further thanks to the Wildlife Works park rangers for their assistance on this project. All research was conducted in accordance with the following permissions: WKU IACUC Permit #16-02, #19-10, and #20-05, NACOSTI/P/20/4805, and KWS/BRM/5001 and permit under Wildlife Works.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

S.C. Corde, B.A. Schulte, R.L. Von Hagen, S. Kasaine, U.N. Mutwiwa, M. Githiru, and B. Amakobe conceived the ideas and designed methodology; S.C. Corde, R.L. Von Hagen, and S. Kasaine collected the data, S.C. Corde analyzed the data and led the writing of the manuscript. S.C. Corde, B.A. Schulte, R.L. Von Hagen, S. Kasaine, U. Mutwiwa, and B. Amakobe contributed critically to the drafts, and all authors gave final approval for publication.

Our study brings together scientists from both the United States and Kenya, where the study was carried out. We worked closely with local stakeholders throughout the design process of the experiments and continue to work with the local people to update and better the methodology of the study for the better of all the individuals involved.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the International Elephant Foundation; the Earthwatch Institute; Wildlife Works; the Department of Biology, the Center for Biodiversity Studies, and the Graduate School at Western Kentucky University; and the Richard Lounsbery Foundation.