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Abstract
Australia and Japan have come to rely on each other for their economic security. However, they both share a worrisome distancing from their Asian neighbours. For a variety of reasons—some similar, some dissimilar, but all of them potent—they remain outsiders in the Asia-Pacific region. They are often perceived as states that relate awkwardly, sometimes counterproductively within the region: with each other, and with other regional contenders and would-be partners. This is evident in the suspicious pragmatism with which a rising China, for example, treats both Japan and Australia—for different reasons but with almost identical consequences. The causes of this alienation from mainstream Asia lie first in Australia's clinging to its British past and its dependence on its alliance with the Unites States. Secondly, Japan's failure to face up to its record of militarism during the Pacific War seriously constrains its relations with countries in the region—all of whom suffered from the crazy Japanese ambition to create a `Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere'. And Japan's reliance on the US security umbrella aggravates its isolation. Australia and Japan need to work together to help overcome their respective though similar forms of estrangement within the Asia-Pacific region.
Acknowledgements
We thank F Scott Howell SJ for correcting our many mistakes (which we unconscionably blame on each other). Allan Patience acknowledges the hospitality of the Department of Advanced Social and International Studies in the University of Tokyo, which provided much needed space for thinking and writing, and made possible collaboration with Michael Jacques. Special mention must also be made of the excellent restaurant Tête-à-Tête, in Yotsuya, Tokyo, where some of the most creative collaborating took place.
Notes
1. Ross Garnaut, Social Democracy in Australia's Asian Future, Asia Pacific Press, Australian National University, Canberra, 2001, p 175.
2. Graeme Dobell, Australia Finds Home: The Choices and Chances of an Asia Pacific Journey, ABC Books for the Australian Broadcasting Commission, Sydney, 2001, p 195.
3. See, for example, J G [John] Crawford, ‘Australia as a pacific power’, in W G K Duncan (ed.), Australia's Foreign Policy, Angus & Robertson in conjunction with the Australian Institute of Political Science, Sydney, 1938; J G Crawford assisted by Nancy Anderson and Margery G N Morris, Australian Trade Policy 1942–1966: A Documentary History, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1968; and David Lowe, Menzies and the ‘Great World Struggle’: Australia's Cold War 1948–54, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, 1999.
4. See the interesting (and admiring) references to Crawford in Garnaut, op. cit. (supra, fn 1).
5. Alan Goodall, ‘Japan–Aussie relationship losing its spark’, Japan Times, 13 May 2001, p 19. < http://www.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/getarticle.pl5?eo20010513a2.htm>
6. For some frank accounts of Australian attitudes to Japan in the immediate postwar period, see Takemae Eiji, Introduction, Inside GHQ, Continuum, London, 2002.
7. ibid.
8. Humphrey McQueen, Japan to the Rescue: Australian Security around the Indonesian Archipelago during the American Century, William Heinemann, Port Melbourne, 1991, p 51.
9. Joseph A Camilleri, States, Markets and Civil Society in Asia Pacific, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2000, p 309.
10. Robert Keohane and Joseph S Nye, Introduction, in Joseph S Nye and John D Donohue (eds), Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution, Washington, 2000, p 12.
11. John Gerard Ruggie, ‘Multilateralism: The anatomy of an institution’, in John Gerard Ruggie (ed), Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, Columbia University Press, New York, 1993, p 35.
12. Woosang Kim and In-Taek Hyun, ‘Toward a new concept of security: human security in world politics’, in William T Tow, Ramesh Thakur and In-Taek Hyun (eds), Asia's Emerging Regional Order: Reconciling Traditional and Human Security, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 2000, p 38.
13. Donald Keene, Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912, Columbia University Press, New York, 2002.
14. See Ian Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan, Farrar Straus & Giroux, New York, 1994.
15. See M Diana Helweg, ‘Japan, a rising sun?’, Foreign Affairs, July/August2000, pp 26–39; Aurelia George Mulgan, ‘Japan, a setting sun?’, Foreign Affairs, July/August 2000, pp 40–52.
16. See, for example, Frank Ching, ‘Moral obligation to war victims remains’, Japan Times, 7 September 2002, p 19.
17. David Walker, Anxious Nation: Australia and the Rise of Asia 1850–1939, University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, 1999. See also David Goldsworthy (ed), Facing North: A Century of Australian Engagement with Asia. vol. 1, 1901–1970s, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2001; Anthony Burke, In Fear of Security: Australia's Invasion Anxiety, Pluto Press, Annandale, 2001.
18. Alison Broinowski, The Yellow Lady: Australian Impressions of Asia, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1990.
19. Neville Meaney, ‘The end of “white Australia” and Australia's changingperceptions of Asia, 1949–1990’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, vol 49, no 2, November 1995, pp 171–90.
20. See James Jupp (ed), The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins, new edn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001 and his From White Australia to Woomera: The Story of Australian Immigration, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002. See also Mark Lopez, The Origins of Multiculturalism in Australian Politics 1945–1975, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2000; Ian H Burnley, The Impact of Immigration on Australia: A Demographic Approach, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2001; Laksiri Jayasuriya and Kee Pookong, The Asianisation of Australia: Some Facts about the Myths, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1999; James E Coughlan & Deborah J McNamara (eds), Asians in Australia: Patterns of Migration and Settlement, Macmillan Education Australia, South Melbourne, 1997.
21. Stephen Fitzgerald, Is Australia an Asian Country: Can Australia Survive in an East Asian Future? Allen and Unwin, St. Leonards, 1997; Paul Keating, Engagement: Australia Faces the Asia Pacific, Macmillan, Sydney, 2000. See also Mark McGillivray and Gary Smith (eds), Australia and Asia, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1997.
22. Michael Leach, Geoffrey Stokes and Ian Ward (eds), The Rise and Fall of One Nation, University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, 2000.
23. Anthony Milner, ‘Balancing “Asia” against Australian values’, in James Cotton and John Ravenhill (eds), The National Interest in a Global Era: Australia in World Affairs 1996–2000, Oxford University Press in association with the Australian Institute of International Affairs, Melbourne, 2001, p 50. See also the chapter by Rikki Kersten, ‘Australia and Japan’, in the same volume, pp 72–90; and Alan Rix, The Australia–Japan Political Alignment: 1952 to the Present, Routledge Studies in Modern History of Asia 4, Routledge, London, 1999.
24. Peter Robinson, ‘Odd, but a couple’, Sydney Morning Herald, 19 October 1997, p 54.
25. For a negative account of the MFP, see Gavan McCormack, ‘Bubble and swamp, MFP and the Australia–Japan encounter’, in Anthony Milner &Mary Quilty (eds), Australia in Asia: Episodes, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1998, pp 61–81. There has yet to be a positive account written about the, at times, visionary MFP idea. A positive account is strongly needed before a balanced understanding of the issue can be achieved.
26. See, for example, Takemae, op. cit.; Ray A Moore and Donald L Robinson, Partners for Democracy: Crafting the New Japanese State under Mac Arthur, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002, < http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/politicalscience/019515116X/toc.html>.
27. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, ‘Collective memory, collective forgetting: indigenous peoples and the nation/state in Japan and Australia’, Meanjin, vol 53, no 4, 1994, pp 597–612.
28. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London, 1983; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1990. See also Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays, Basic Books, New York, 1973.
29. Examples of literature examining this nationalism include the essays in John Carroll (ed), Intruders in the Bush: The Australian Quest for Identity, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1992; and Richard White, Inventing Australia: Images and Identity, 1688–1980, Australian Experience, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1981.
30. Elaine Thompson, Fair Enough: Egalitarianism in Australia, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, 1994.
31. See, for example, Patricia Grimshaw, Marilyn Lake, Ann McGrath and Marian Quartly, Creating a Nation, McPhee Gribble, Melbourne, 1994.
32. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, `Lest we remember: the future of the past in Japan and Australia', in Masayo Tada and Leigh Dale (eds), On the Western Edge: Comparisons of Japan and Australia, API Network, Perth, pp 23–34.
33. Masayo Tada, ‘Japanese newspaper representations of Australia, 1970–1996’, Journal of Australian Studies, 66, 2000, pp 170–9. See also her ‘Grappling with Another Other: Australian Studies in Japan’, PhD thesis, Australian National University, 2002.
34. Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera, op. cit.; Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, A Place in the Sun: Re-creating the Australian Way of Life, HarperCollins, Pymble, 2000.
35. See, for example, Harumi Befu, Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropology of Nihonjinron, Japanese Society, Trans Pacific Press, Melbourne, 2001; John Lie, Multiethnic Japan, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2001.
36. Brian J McVeigh, ‘Education reform in Japan, fixing education or fostering economic statism?’, in J S Eades, Tom Gill and Harumi Befu (eds),Globalization and Social Change in Contemporary Japan, Transpacific Press, Melbourne, 2000, p 79. McVeigh helpfully cites some writers against several of these forms of nationalism.
37. Brian J McVeigh, Japanese Higher Education as Myth, M E Sharpe, New York, 2002, p 47.
38. Yoshino Kosaku, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan: A Sociological Inquiry, Routledge, London, 1992, p 25; also quoted in McVeigh, ibid., p 47.
39. East Asian Analytical Unit, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, China Embraces the World Economy: Achievements, Constraints and Opportunities, The Dept., Barton, 1997.
40. Ross Gittins, ‘Woken giant is a world-beater’, Sydney Morning Herald, Opinion, 27 November 2002, p 15.
41. For Australia's most recent arrogations of this role, see the following reports: ‘Asia furious over Howard remarks on pre-emptive strikes’, Japan Times, 2 December 2002, p 3; ‘Howard a bit too quick on the trigger, again’, Nation [Bangkok], 3 December 2002; also in Daily Yomiuri, 5 December 2002, p 16; ‘Australia alienating the friends it needs’, Japan Times, 6 December 2002, p 21.
42. See Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, Random House, New York, 1987. Cf. John J Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, Norton, New York, 2001.
43. See Gill Bates, Jennifer Chang & Sarah Palmer, ‘China's HIV crisis’, Foreign Affairs, March/April 2002, pp 96–110; Nicholas Eberstadt, ‘The future of AIDS’, Foreign Affairs, November/December 2002, especially pp 28–31.
44. David Shambaugh, ‘Facing reality in China policy’, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2001, pp 50–64.
45. Michael Hirsh, ‘Bush and the world’, Foreign Affairs, September/October 2002, pp 20–1.
46. Joseph S Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World's Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone, Oxford University Press, New York, 2002, p 40, < http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/politicalscience/0195161106/toc.html>.
47. Richard Falk, ‘The making of global citizenship’, in Jeremy Brecher, John Brown Childs and Jill Cutler (eds), Global Visions: Beyond the New World Order, Black Rose, Montreal, 1993, pp 39–50. See also Richard Falk, Predatory Globalization: A Critique, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1999.