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Abstract
This article traces the influences of US example on the politics of ‘race' and ethnicity in post-war Australia as each nation struggled to contain the implications of cultural pluralism within the boundaries of the liberal democratic state. Despite acknowledged influences of developments in the US on Australia, it would be facile to attribute the particular role of the Australian state in managing ‘race' relations and ethnic diversity to imported models. Contests over civil rights remained largely distinct to each nation in the post-war years.
Notes
1. J Nagle, ‘Constructing ethnicity: seating and reseating ethnic identity and culture’, Social Problems, vol 41, no 1, November 1994, pp 154–5.
2. M Banton, Racial and Ethnic Competition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983, p 106. See also J Hutchinson and A D Smith (eds), Ethnicity, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996, especially Author's Introduction.
3. C D Rowley, ‘Aborigines and other Australians’, in I Hogbin and L R Hiatt (eds), Readings in Australian and Pacific Anthropology, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1966, pp 79–85.
4. ibid., pp 81–5.
5. S Gunew, ‘Multicultural multiplexities: US, Canada, Australia’, in D Bennett (ed.), Cultural Studies: Pluralism and Theory, vol 2, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1993, pp 52–3.
6. Age, 25 May 1954, p 2.
7. Age, Editorial, 27 September 1957, p 2; Sydney Morning Herald, Editorial, 25 September 1957, p 2.
8. Sydney Morning Herald, Editorial, 7 April 1968, p 2; Sydney Morning Herald, Editorial, 8 April 1968, p 2; ibid., p 5
9. Age, Editorial, 24 May 1961, p 2; Sydney Morning Herald, 24 May 1961, p 1.
10. Sydney Morning Herald, Editorial, 6 April 1968, p 2; Sydney Morning Herald, Editorial, 8 April 1968, p 2. For examples of newspaper Editorial opinion, see: Age, 16 April 1965, p 2; 23 April 1965, p 2; 6 May 1968, p 11; 8 May1968, p 5; 6 April 1968, p 2; and 8 April 1968, p 2.
11. P Read, Charles Perkins: A Biography, Penguin, Ringwood, 1990, pp 97–8; MA Franklin, Black and White Australians, Heinemann, Melbourne, 1976, pp 198–212.
12. Canberra Times, in Read, ibid., pp 111–12.
13. Walker, in A B Pittock, Beyond White Australia, Australia and New Zealand Book Co, Sydney, 1975, pp 32–48; B McGuinness, ‘Black power in Australia’, in F Stevens (ed.), Racism: The Australian Experience, vol 2, pub?, Sydney, 1972, p 155. See also C Jennett, Black Power as Anti-Colonial Discourse, Ph D dissertation, School of Sociology, University of New South Wales, 1996, esp. pp 330–58.
14. R Sykes, in A Turner (ed.), On Trial: Black Power in Australia, Heinemann, Melbourne, 1975, pp 8–11, 22.
15. McGuinness, op. cit., p 155.
16. R Sykes, in A Turner (ed.), op. cit., pp 8–11.
17. Perkins, in Franklin, op. cit., pp 202–4.
18. Franklin, ibid, p 207, no 18.
19. C D Rowley, The Destruction of Aboriginal Society, Penguin, Ringwood, 1972, p 3; Outcasts in White Australia, Penguin, Ringwood, 1972, pp 181–3, 248, 283–4; The Remote Aborigines, Penguin, Ringwood, 1972.
20. Rowley, Outcasts, p 191, also 231n., 248, 275, 275n.
21. Aboriginal Children's Research Project, ‘Assimilation and Aboriginal Child Welfare’, n.p., NSW, 1981, p 27.
22. C D Rowley, The Destruction of Aboriginal Society, p 13; Outcasts in White Australia, pp 178, 154–95, 383–6, 449.
23. M Weaver, ‘Struggles of the nation-state to define Aboriginal ethnicity: Canada and Australia’, in L Gold (ed.), Minorities and Mother Country Imagery, Social and Economic Papers, no 13, Memorial University of Newfoundland Press, Newfoundland, 1984, pp 192–3.
24. See, for example, R L Barsh, ‘Indigenous policy in Australia and NorthAmerica’, in B Hocking (ed.), International Law and Aboriginal Human Rights, [Law] Book Company Limited, Sydney, 1988, pp 95–109.
25. R Sykes, Black Majority, Hudson, Melbourne, 1987, p 215.
26. See P Julle, Australian National and and Outback Indigenous Peoples, Casuarina, Northern Territory, Discussion Paper no 1, November 1991, pp 28–34.
27. A Curthoys and A Markus (eds), Who Are Our Enemies? Racism and the Working Class in Australia, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney, 1978, pp xxii–xix.
28. R Sykes, op. cit., p 215.
29. Bulletin, 17 October 1995, Cover.
30. C Dickson, ‘Chicka Dickson’, in C Tatz (ed.), Black Viewpoints: The Aboriginal Experience, Australia and New Zealand Book Co, Sydney, 1995, pp 32–8.
31. Pauline Hanson, ‘Australia, Wake Up’, Maiden Speech, Australian Parliament, 10 September 1996, accessed 20 September 2006,< http://www.paulinehanson.com.au/Maiden_Speech.htm>.
32. Craig McGregor, ‘The new ghettos of Sydney’, in Sydney Morning Herald, 13 October 1997, p 13; Bulletin, 30 June 1992, p 1; J Lack and J Templeton, Bold Experiment: A Documentary History of Australian Immigration Since 1945, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995, p 48.
33. J Higham, ‘Immigration’, in C Vann Woodward (ed.), The Comparative Approach to American History, Basic Books, New York, 1968, pp 102–3.
34. M L Kovacs and A J Cropley, Immigrants and Society: Alienation and Assimilation, McGraw Hill, Sydney, 1975, pp 121–4. No study of US example and influence on Australian practices in the field of immigration policy or immigrant reception and multiculturalism has been written. However, some comparative work has been undertaken. See, for example, G Freeman and J Jupp (eds), Nations of Immigrants: Australia, the United States, and International Migration, Allen & Unwin, Melbourne, 1992; R Bell (ed.), Multicultural Societies: A Comparative Reader, Sable, Sydney, 1988; A Armitage, Comparing the Policy of Aboriginal Assimilation: Australia, Canada and New Zealand, Vancouver, 1995.
35. Horne, in S Brawley, The White Peril: Foreign Relations and Asian Immigration to Australasia and North America 1919–1978, UNSW Press, Sydney, 1995, pp 364–5.
36. Lack and Templeton, op. cit., p 48.
37. Jupp, in Office of Multicultural Affairs, Responding to Diversity: The People of Australia, Office of Multicultural Affairs, Canberra, 1990, pp 1–2. Compare Hanson, ‘Australia, Wake Up’, op. cit.
38. Office of Multicultural Affairs, National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia… Sharing Our Future, Canberra, 1989, pp 1–52.
39. M Rosenfield, Affirmative Action and Justice, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991, pp 1–7, 8–51. Compare L Thurow, ‘Affirmative Action in a Zero-Sum Game’, in R Takaki (ed.), From Different Shores, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994, esp. p 235.
40. R Sykes, op. cit., p 215.
41. C Ronalds, Affirmative Action and Sex Discrimination, Pluto Press, Sydney, 1987; C Larmour, Affirmative Action Legislation in Australia, Current Issues Brief 5, The Legislative Research Services Department of Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 1985–86, esp. p 8.
42. J Martin, ‘Forms of recognition’, in Curthoys and Markus (eds), op. cit., pp 198–200.
43. Hanson's ‘One Nation’ rhetoric routinely made such claims. See Hanson, ‘Australia, Wake Up’, op. cit.
44. Gunew, op. cit., p 53–6, 60–2.
45. J Scott, ‘Multiculturalism and the politics of identity’, October 61, Summer, 1992, A13, quoted Gunew, ibid., p 54, no 11.
46. Gunew, ibid., p 60.
47. A M Schlesinger Jr, ‘The cult of ethnicity: good and bad’, Time, 8 July 1991, p 21. See also Schlesinger Jr, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society, Norton, Knoxville, 1991. Compare, generally, Takaki (ed.), op. cit.
48. Hughes, ‘The fraying of America’ (extract), Time (Australia), 3 February 1992, pp 82–7.
49. B A Santamaria, ‘We must learn from US divide’, The Weekend Australian, 14–15 October 1995, p 27. See also P P McGuinness, ‘Australia's Aborigines have much to learn’, Sydney Morning Herald, 21 October 1994, p 14.
50. Office of Multicultural Affairs, op. cit., pp 2–4.
51. S Castles et al., ‘Australia: Multi-ethnic community without national-ism?’, in Hutchinson and Smith (eds), op, cit., p 359.