The mitigating role of physical activities on emotions is gender-specific: An experience during “lenient” COVID-19 prevention protocols

Abstract

The researchers examined emotional status subsequent to changes in physical (PA) and sedentary (SA) activities during “lenient” COVID-19 prevention protocols that allowed being outdoors. Emotions, PA, and SA were collected from 272 women and 145 men in Qatar. The researchers showed a decrease (p < 0.05) in PA and an increase (p < 0.05) in SA participation during the pandemic. These alterations were different (p < 0.05) between genders and associated (p < 0.05) with emotional status during the COVID-19-induced confinement, but only (p < 0.05) in men. The “mitigating” role of PA for the adverse emotional effects of the pandemic is demonstrated, especially among men. Therefore, “lenient” regulations should be considered around the globe during future pandemics for adequate PA and emotional wellbeing. However, plans should incorporate additional tactics to PA to manage emotional status among women.

Background

Participation in physical (PA) and sedentary (SA) activities is different in women versus men. Additionally, the importance of an active lifestyle for emotional wellbeing in adults is well-documented. Given the devastating effects of COVID19, governments across the globe were compelled to implement rigorous regulations to restrain the spread of the pandemic. Unfortunately, some of these regulations have drastically limited mobility. Evidently, several studies reported altered participation in PA and SA associated with adverse emotional effects during COVID19 in many countries across the world. The Qatari government, however, implemented a set of “lenient” COVID19 prevention regulations that allowed being outdoors, alone or with family members. Therefore, people in Qatar took advantage of these “lenient” regulations by participating in a range of outdoor PA in parks and walking, running, and cycling trails.

The present study aimed at examining PA and SA participation and subsequent emotional wellbeing among women and men in Qatar during COVID19 lockdown procedures. The results showed an increase in the majority of PA domains, especially among women. This increase in PA was associated with improved positive emotions, in the men but not the women. These interesting results demonstrate the importance of “lenient” COVID19 regulations, which allowed outdoor mobility, for maintaining participation in PA and subsequent positive influences on emotional wellbeing. Importantly, however, the results suggest that other tactics, in addition to PA, are needed to help maintain emotional wellbeing among women.

These findings suggest that governments around the globe should consider “lenient” implementation of regulations to restrain the spread of pandemics in the future. Such “lenient” regulations might help people maintain participation in PA and improve emotional wellbeing, while reducing the risk of infection during pandemics. Importantly, plans might need to incorporate other tactics than PA to aid in ameliorating the negative emotions experienced during pandemic breakouts, especially among women.

In December 2019, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) spread rapidly across the globe, claiming high proportions of infected people and fatalities. Subsequently, in March 2020, the World Health Organization declared the disease as a pandemic. The disease is transmitted through contact, droplet, airborne, fomite, fecal-oral, bloodborne, mother-to-child, and animal-to-human (World Health Organization, 2022). As of March 2022, over 364,191,494 cases have been confirmed, resulting in approximately 5,631,457 fatalities in more than 130 countries (World Health Organization, 2022). In Qatar, the ratio of positive patients/million was one of the highest worldwide (Ministry of Public Health State of Qatar, 2022).

Subsequently, similar to the rest of the world, the Qatari authorities implemented a range of precautionary measures to restrain the spread of the disease. These measures include social distancing, online working and schooling, home confinement, and the closure of public places, including gyms. These types of movement-restraining measures might result in radical changes in a range of lifestyle behaviors such as physical (PA) and sedentary (SA) activities (Cosma et al., 2021; Ghram et al., 2021; Haddad, Abbes, Ghram et al., 2021; Haddad et al., 2021). However, in attempts to encourage people to engage in PA in Qatar, the governmental disease-preventive measures explicitly allowed residents to participate in outdoor PAs. For example, although shops were closed, some malls were still opened to encourage the public to continue participating in PA (Government Communications Office, 2022).

Previous authors reported that people experienced significant changes in mental health including increased stress, depression, anxiety, aggression, loneliness, negative emotions, and compulsive behaviors during the COVID-19 lockdown (Ammar et al., 2021; Kola et al., 2021; Markofski et al., 2021; Zach et al., 2021; Zhang & Lange, 2021), which could present a public health concern. For example, during the peak of COVID-19 in Qatar, Megreya et al. (2022) found that social distancing adversely impacted negative emotions and quality of life, while reporting significant increments in negative emotions and remarkable declines in some positive emotions.

Mental health enables individuals to realize their capabilities, cope with life stressors, function efficiently, and be productive (Velten et al., 2018). In addition, it is essential for physical health, disease prevention, activities of daily living, and overall quality of life. Furthermore, it is an important factor for participating in a healthy lifestyle, particularly in PAs (Velten et al., 2018). Thus, identifying and participating in healthy lifestyle choices that promote psychological well-being and reduce mental health problems are useful in preventing diseases and enhancing overall health during mentally disturbing circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Zhang & Lange, 2021).

The benefits of PA are numerous, diverse, and well-documented, as even a small amount can result in significant health advantages (Warburton & Bredin, 2017). Participation in PA is associated with greater levels of overall health and quality of life and lower risk of hospitalization, morbidity, and mortality due to cardiovascular causes (Fletcher et al., 2018; Park et al., 2020; Piercy et al., 2018). Physical activity is also related to mental health in multiple ways, as it lowers the risk, development, and symptoms of stress, depression, and anxiety (Kola et al., 2021). Additionally, PA is favorably related to positive and negative emotions (Markofski et al., 2021; Zach et al., 2021) without showing gender differences (Zach et al., 2021) during COVID-19-induced confinement. However, participation in PA is different in the women versus the men (Guthold et al., 2018), even at young age (Guthold et al., 2020). Women tend to participate less in occupation, transportation, and leisure-time PAs and more in SA, attributed mainly to socioeconomic factors (Mielke et al., 2018).

The disease-induced confinements have affected a variety of aspects of people lives around the world, namely physical and mental health (Kola et al., 2021). However, authors describing a gender effect on changes in emotions, PAs, and SAs, under COVID-19-preventing protocols that permit participation in outdoor activities, are still sparse. Accordingly, the researchers of the current study examined the gender-stratified relationship of changes in PAs and SAs with changes in negative and positive emotions in Qatar during COVID-19. The “lenient” disease-prevention protocols are expected to help the Qatari residents to participate in PA. Additionally, the PA and SA scores are expected to change differently in the women versus the men. Importantly, the relationship of altered PA and SA with negative and positive emotions is hypothesized to be gender-specific. The authors in the current study expect to demonstrate the importance of PA and SA for emotions during COVID-19 in men and women, would help design plans and implement gender-specific strategies to ameliorate the adverse effects of pandemic-induced confinement, particularly the emotional effects.

Methods

Design, recruitment, and procedure

The authors opted a cross-sectional and observational design to examine the relationship of altered PA and SA with altered positive and negative emotions during COVID-19-induced confinement. Women and men aged 18–80 years were invited to participate in this study in February-July, 2021. Individuals with psychiatric/psychological disorders, or those incapable of reading or comprehending the questions, were excluded from the study. The researchers collected PA and SA data using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (Alomari et al., 2011), while they measured changes in emotions using a modified versions of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Megreya et al., 2022). The investigators also obtained demographic and socioeconomic information, including weight, height, age, gender, sleeping pattern, smoking status, education, family income, and occupation. The authors used the Google Forms web-based survey service and various e-platforms, including social media (WhatsApp and Facebook), emails, and personal invitations to collect data for the current study. Ethical approval for participation in this study is in accordance and provided by Qatar University’s Institutional Review Board. Online informed consent was obtained from all participants before completing the questionnaires.

Instruments

Positive and negative affect schedule

The PANAS is a self-reported 20-item measure of positive and negative emotions (Watson et al., 1988). Each item consists of only one adjective word describing a specific positive (such as inspired, active, and determined) or negative (such as ashamed, nervous, hostile Upset, distressed, and upset) emotions. The scale entails the respondents to specify the extent to which they have experienced the 20 emotions status using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very slightly/not at all) to 5 (extremely).

Physical and sedentary activities

The IPAQ is a self-report questionnaire that assesses the amount of PA and SA in different populations using different languages, including Arabic (Alomari et al., 2011). The total number of days and minutes of PA and SA using seven questions were collected and calculated to yield four activity levels including sitting, walking, moderate (e.g., leisure cycling), and vigorous (e.g., running or weight-lifting) intensity (Alomari et al., 2011; Guthold et al., 2008). The IPAQ is a valid, reliable, and standardized measure for PA and SA that has been widely used in the literature for health and disease in various languages including Arabic (Alomari et al., 2011; Guthold et al., 2008).

Statistical analysis

Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 22.00 was used. Significance was set a prior at p ≤ 0.05, and data were presented as mean ± SD or frequencies. Changes in PA, SA, and positive and negative emotions were compared between genders. Additionally, to determine the relationship of the changes in PA and SA with emotional status, a series of comparisons was performed among self-reported emotional changes (increase or no change versus decrease) in PAs (vigorous, moderate, walking, and total) and SA during COVID-19. All comparisons were conducted using ANCOVA after controlling for confounders, including marital status, job sector, education, income, and residency. The least significant difference post-hoc comparisons were used to determine subgroup differences.

Results

Participants

The participants’ characteristics are shown in Table 1. A total of 417 men (n = 145) and women (n = 272) agreed to participate in this study. The age, weight, height, and body mass index ranges were 18–72 years, 42–140 kg, 138–197 cm, and 14.4–54.7, respectively. The majority of the participants were from middle income strata (n = 291), were married (n = 275), lived in the city (n = 319), had college education (n = 213), and worked in the government (n = 173).

Table 1. The participant demographic (n = 417).

Gender (%; women)	65.2
Age (yrs, mean ± SD)	34.5 ± 12.2
Weight (kg, mean ± SD)	74.9 ± 18.3
Height (cm, mean ± SD)	164.9 ± 9.7
BMI (kg/m^2, mean ± SD)	27.5 ± 6.2
Marital status (%)
Single	30.2
Married	65.9
Divorced	3.8
Level of Education (%)
High school and less	22.3
Associate degree	6.7
Bachelor degree	55.4
Graduate degree	15.6
Income (%)
Low	9.4
Middle	69.8
High	20.9
Job type/sector (%)
Government	41.5
Private	13.4
Retired/no job	10.6
Student	21.8
Housewife	12.7
Residency (%)
Urban	76.5
Rural	23.5

Gender differences in PA, SA, and changes in positive and negative emotions

According to the ANCOVA, the researchers show in Table 2 that men reported greater vigorous (p < 0.002), moderate (p < 0.02), and total (p < 0.0001) PA versus women, while walking PA (p > 0.16) and SA (p > 0.7) were the same in both genders. Using the ANCOVA, the investigators also revealed no difference in positive (p > 0.3) and negative (p > 0.13) emotional changes in men compared with women.

Table 2. Physical and sedentary activities and positive and negative emotions in the women and men during the pandemic (n = 417).

	Women (n = 272)	Men (n = 145)	p-value
Vigorous Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	706.6 ± 1156.5	1087.8 ± 1148.7	0.002
Moderate Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	337.5 ± 475.7	486.5 ± 548.5	0.02
Walking Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	433.8 ± 603.1	549.7 ± 629.8	0.16
Total Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	1379.9 ± 1742.5	2171.1 ± 2004.4	0.0001
Sedentary Activity (min/week)	49.3 ± 111.0	57.8 ± 117.9	0.70
Positive emotions (U)	20.9 ± 4.90	20.3 ± 4.00	0.30
Negative emotions (U)	21.3 ± 4.7	21.5 ± 4.4	0.13

Data presented in mean ± SD.

Changes in PA and SA during the pandemic

Using the ANCOVA, shown in Table 3, the investigators revealed no differences (p > 0.64) in vigorous PA during versus before the pandemic-induced confinement. However, when stratified according to gender, the investigators showed lower (p < 0.009) vigorous PA during versus before the pandemic among the men, without differences (p > 0.12) in the women. Similarly, the investigators showed no differences (p > 0.82) in moderate PA during versus before the pandemic, whereas using gender-stratified comparisons the investigators showed greater moderate PA during versus before the pandemic in the men (p < 0.03) and women (p < 0.03). According to the investigators, walking PA did not differ during versus before the pandemic in the entire sample (p > 0.61), the men (p > 0.30), or the women (p > 0.20). The investigators, using ANCOVA, showed no differences (p > 0.81) in total PA during versus before the pandemic, while using gender-stratified post-comparisons they showed that the men (p < 0.01) and women (p < 0.02) reported greater moderate PAs during versus before the pandemic. According to the investigators, no differences were found in SA among the entire sample (p > 0.41), the men (p > 0.30), and the women (p > 0.40).

Table 3. Physical and sedentary activities before and during the pandemic (n = 417).

	Before	During	p-value
Entire sample (n=417)
Vigorous Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	864.7 ± 94.1	839.2 ± 87.7	0.64
Moderate Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	367.6 ± 40.8	389.3 ± 506.6	0.82
Walking Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	383.4 ± 544.9	445.8 ± 770.0	0.91
Total Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	1700.2 ± 2004.4	1659.2 ± 1875.3	0.81
Sedentary Activity (min/week)	35.3 ± 85.1	52.3 ± 113.4	0.41
Men (n = 145)
Vigorous Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	1231.6 ± 158.4	1087.8 ± 1148.7	0.009
Moderate Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	469.5 ± 107.06	486.5 ± 548.4	0.03
Walking Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	502.8 ± 680.2	539.4 ± 705.6	0.04
Total Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	2247.4 ± 2397.3	2171.1 ± 2004.4	0.01
Sedentary Activity (min/week)	38.3 ± 85.6	57.8 ± 117.8	0.25
Women (n = 272)
Vigorous Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	669.0 ± 92.8	706.6 ± 1156.4	0.12
Moderate Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	313.2 ± 106.5	337.5 ± 475.7	0.03
Walking Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	318.9 ± 443.5	395.2 ± 799.4	0.05
Total Physical Activity (METs- min/week)	1401.7 ± 157.1	1380.0 ± 1742.5	0.02
Sedentary Activity (min/week)	33.6 ± 84.9	49.3 ± 111.1	0.35

Data presented in mean ± SE.

Relationship of PA and SA with changes in positive emotions: the gender effect

As demonstrated in the ANCOVA in Table 4, the investigators showed a main effect (p < 0.007) of changes in vigorous PA for positive emotions. Using post-hoc analysis, the researchers showed lower positive PANAS scores in those who reported a decrease versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.007) and no change (p < 0.006), without differences (p > 0.9) between increase and no change in vigorous PA. When stratified according to gender, the investigators showed a main effect of changes in vigorous PA for positive emotions among the men (p < 0.0001) but not among the women (p > 0.5). According to subsequent subgroup comparisons in the men, the researchers showed lower positive PANAS scores in those who reported a decrease in vigorous PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.001) and no change (p < 0.001), without differences (p > 0.6) between increase and no change.

Table 4. Differences in positive PANAS according to the changes in physical and sedentary activity in the entire sample, in the men, and in the women.

	Decrease	No change	Increase
Entire sample (n = 417)
Vigorous Physical Activity	19.7 ± 5.2	21.3 ± 4.1*	21.2 ± 4.1*
Moderate Physical Activity	19.1 ± 4.7	21.4 ± 4.3*	21.4 ± 4.4*
Walking Physical Activity	19.3 ± 5.0	21.5 ± 4.2*	21.2 ± 4.3*
Total Physical Activity	19.6 ± 4.9	21.7 ± 3.7*	20.7 ± 4.6*
Sedentary Activity	20.7 ± 4.6	22.1 ± 4.6	20.2 ± 4.6†
Women (n = 272)
Vigorous Physical Activity	20.4 ± 5.7	21.1 ± 4.2	21.1 ± 4.7
Moderate Physical Activity	19.4 ± 4.9	21.5 ± 4.5	21.6 ± 5.2
Walking Physical Activity	20.0 ± 5.2	21.5 ± 4.6	21.1 ± 4.8
Total Physical Activity	20.4 ± 5.2	21.5 ± 3.9	21.1 ± 5.0
Sedentary Activity	20.7 ± 5.8	21.6 ± 5.0	20.7 ± 4.7
Men (n = 145)
Vigorous Physical Activity	18.3 ± 3.9	21.7 ± 4.1	21.2 ± 3.3*
Moderate Physical Activity	18.6 ± 4.5	21.3 ± 4.0	21.0 ± 2.9*
Walking Physical Activity	17.8 ± 4.5	21.4 ± 3.1	21.2 ± 3.4*
Total Physical Activity	18.3 ± 4.0	22.4 ± 2.8	21.6 ± 3.4*
Sedentary Activity	20.6 ± 4.1	23.0 ± 3.5	19.5 ± 3.8†

Data presented in mean ± SD. *p < 0.05 versus decrease. † p < 0.05 versus no change.

Using ANCOVA, the authors showed a main effect (p < 0.0001) of changes in moderate PA for positive emotions. With post-hoc analysis, the investigators showed lower positive PANAS scores in those who reported a decrease in moderate PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.0001) and no change (p < 0.0001), without differences (p > 0.9) between increase and no change. Using gender-stratified ANCOVA, the authors showed a main effect of changes in moderate PA for positive emotions among the men (p < 0.007) and the women (p < 0.001). With subsequent subgroup comparisons in the men, the investigators showed lower positive PANAS score in those who reported a decrease in moderate PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.006) and no change (p < 0.006), without differences (p > 0.9) between increase and no change. Likewise, using post-hoc group comparisons among the women, the researchers showed lower positive PANAS scores in those who reported a decrease in moderate PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.001) and no change (p < 0.003), without differences (p > 0.9) between increase and no change.

As in the ANCOVA, the researchers showed a main effect (p < 0.0001) of changes in walking PA for positive PANAS scores. The researchers, using post-hoc analysis, showed lower positive PANAS scores in those who reported a decrease in walking PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.001) and no change (p < 0.0001), without differences (p > 0.6) between increase and no change. When gender-stratified ANCOVA was used, the researchers showed a main effect of changes in walking PA for positive PANAS scores among the men (p < 0.0001) but not among the women (p > 0.09). With subsequent subgroup comparisons in the men, the authors showed lower positive PANAS score in those who reported a decrease in walking PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.0001) and no change (p < 0.0001), without differences (p > 0.9) between increase and no change.

The authors showed a main effect (p < 0.001) of changes in total PA for positive emotions. With post-hoc analysis, the investigators showed lower positive PANAS scores in those who reported a decrease in total PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.001) and no change (p < 0.001), without differences (p > 0.6) between increase and no change. When stratified according to gender, the investigators showed a main effect of changes in total PA for positive PANAS scores among the men (p < 0.0001) but not among the women (p > 0.3). Using subsequent subgroup comparisons in the men, the researchers showed lower positive PANAS score in those who reported a decrease in total PA versus those who reported an increase (p < 0.0001) and no change (p < 0.0001), without differences (p > 0.6) between increase and no change.

The researchers, using ANCOVA, showed a main effect (p < 0.01) of changes in SA for positive emotions. Using post-hoc analysis, the researchers showed lower positive PANAS score in the ones that reported an increase in SA versus those reporting no change (p < 0.003) in SA, without differences between a decrease and no change (p > 0.2) and increase (p > 0.6). When stratified according to gender, the researchers showed a main effect of changes for positive PANAS scores among the men (p < 0.001) but not among the women (p > 0.7). When subsequent subgroup comparisons were used in the men, the researchers showed lower positive PANAS score in those who reported an increase in SA versus those who reported no change (p < 0.0001), without differences between a decrease versus no change (p < 0.2) and an increase (p > 0.2).

Relationship of PA and SA with negative PANAS: The gender effect

The relationship is shown in Table 5. According to the ANCOVA, the authors demonstrated no main effect for changes in vigorous PA of negative emotions in the entire population (p > 0.1) or among the men (p > 0.4) and the women (p > 0.2). Using ANCOVA, the researchers showed no main effect (p > 0.1) for changes in moderate PA in the negative emotions. When stratified according to gender, the researchers showed a main effect of changes in moderate PA in the women (p < 0.02) but not in the men (p > 0.5). Using post-hoc analysis, the researchers revealed lower negative emotions among the women reporting an increase versus a decrease (p < 0.007) and no change (p < 0.04) in moderate PA, without differences (p > 0.3) between no change and decrease. No main effect for changes in walking PA of negative emotions among the entire population (p > 0.9) or in the men (p > 0.5) and women (p > 0.1) were found. No main effect for changes in total PA in negative PANAS among the entire population (p > 0.3) or in the men (p > 0.7) and women (p > 0.2) were found. The researchers revealed no main effect for changes in total SA in negative emotions among the entire population (p > 0.3). The researchers showed a main effect of SA in the men (p < 0.005), but not in the women (p > 0.6). The researchers, using subgroup analysis, demonstrated lower (p < 0.002) negative PANAS scores in the men who experienced no change versus an increase in SA, without differences between a decrease and no change (p > 0.3) and an increase (p > 0.3) in SA.

Table 5. Differences in negative PANAS according to the changes in physical and sedentary activity in the entire sample, in the men, and in the women.

	Decrease	No change	Increase
Entire sample (n = 417)
Vigorous Physical Activity	21.8 ± 4.8	20.7 ± 4.6	21.3 ± 4.2
Moderate Physical Activity	21.9 ± 4.6	21.2 ± 4.5	20.7 ± 5.6
Walking Physical Activity	21.5 ± 4.8	21.3 ± 4.3	21.1 ± 4.6
Total Physical Activity	21.7 ± 4.7	21.0 ± 4.2	21.0 ± 4.6
Sedentary Activity	22.0 ± 4.9	20.6 ± 4.7	21.4 ± 4.5
Women (n = 272)
Vigorous Physical Activity	21.9 ± 4.9	20.6 ± 4.6	21.2 ± 4.4
Moderate Physical Activity	22.0 ± 4.2*	21.4 ± 4.6	20.1 ± 5.1
Walking Physical Activity	21.5 ± 4.6	21.6 ± 4.6*	20.5 ± 4.8
Total Physical Activity	21.8 ± 4.7	20.9 ± 4.5	20.8 ± 4.7
Sedentary Activity	22.4 ± 5.2	21.1 ± 4.8	21.9 ± 4.5
Men (n = 145)
Vigorous Physical Activity	21.8 ± 4.7	20.8 ± 4.8	21.5 ± 4.0
Moderate Physical Activity	21.8 ± 5.1	20.9 ± 4.4	21.5 ± 3.4
Walking Physical Activity	21.5 ± 5.4	20.7 ± 3.5	22.0 ± 4.2
Total Physical Activity	21.5 ± 4.8	21.3 ± 2.7	21.4 ± 4.4
Sedentary Activity	21.0 ± 4.5	19.6 ± 4.5	22.0 ± 4.4

Data presented in mean ± SD. *p < 0.05 versus increase.

Discussion

Similar to most of the globe, the Qatari authority implemented a range of measures to contain the spread of COVID-19 (Government Communications Office, 2022). Fortunately, the disease prevention protocols permitted staying outdoors, especially to participate in PA (Government Communications Office, 2022). Although not the best of the situation, Qatari residents were able to enjoy walking, jogging, and calisthenics in parks, trails, and the corniche, an opportunity to maintain participation in PA.

The researchers examined the relationship of changes in PAs and SAs with positive and negative emotions during COVID-19. According to the examiners, the Qatari residents appeared to enjoy participation in PA, however the level of participation in PA changed during the pandemic, especially in the men. Additionally, the results showed gender differences in PAs but not in SAs or positive and negative emotions. More importantly, the authors revealed that changes (increase and no change versus decrease) in PA were associated with positive and negative emotions. Interestingly, this relationship seems to be gender-specific. These findings are unique and suggest that “lenient” disease-prevention protocols might be sufficient to participate in some but not to maintain the same level of PA. Additionally, regular participation in PA can enhance positive emotions and alleviate negative emotions during disease-related confinement. Therefore, plans designed to mitigate the potential emotional effects of confinement (Basner et al., 2014; Fiorillo & Gorwood, 2020; Hagan et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2020; Madani et al., 2020; Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008; Sandal et al., 2018; Stanton et al., 2020) should consider PA even further, especially among the women.

Differences in gender participation in PA and SA are well documented without COVID19 (Guthold et al., 2018, 2020), especially in the Gulf area countries (e.g. Qatar) (Mielke et al., 2018). These differences starts at young age and have been attributed to socioeconomic factors (Mielke et al., 2018). Men tend to select vigorous PA such as resistance and high-intensity aerobic exercises, while women tend to select low-intensity exercises such as walking (Conkright et al., 2022). Previous researchers reported gender differences in PA during COVID-19-induced confinement (Hu et al., 2020; Lopez-Moreno et al., 2020). In China, men and women reported similar participation in PA (Hu et al., 2020), while in Spain, women participated in more PAs (Lopez-Moreno et al., 2020) during the COVID-19 confinement. Men in the current study reported greater vigorous, moderate, and total PAs than women during COVID-19. These differences may be attributed to social factors. Given the social obligations in Middle Eastern societies, it may be easier for men to exercise outdoors than women (Alkatan et al., 2021). Similarly, in a neighboring country, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, men reported more outdoor PAs, whereas women reported more indoor PAs (Alissa et al., 2015). Lack of appropriate and sufficient exercise facilities and comfort to participate in outdoor activities, were the most frequently reported reasons for lower PAs among women from Arabic-speaking Middle Eastern countries (El Ansari & Berg-Beckhoff, 2017). Therefore, gender differences and social obligations should be considered when planning and implementing strategies to enhance PA participation during disease-induced confinement, particularly among women. Researchers need to confirm these findings and speculations in future studies.

Despite the ample precocious advices (Chen et al., 2020; Haddad, Abbes, Ghram et al., 2021; Jurak et al., 2020) about the negative effects of the rightful and justified disease-induced preventive protocols, most people across the world experienced a reduction in PAs (Alomari et al., 2020; Caputo & Reichert, 2020; Stanton et al., 2020). This reduction has been attributed to home confinement, online working and schooling, closing public places (e.g., gyms), physical distancing, avoiding close contact, and wearing masks (World Health Organization, 2022). One might argue that accounting for PAs in government disease-preventive measures could help the Qataris participate in PAs, which it did. As found herein, these “lenient” protocols seemed to help the men and women participate in some PAs. However, despite the government allowed and encouraged people to participate in outdoor PAs (Government Communications Office, 2022), these attempts were not sufficient to maintain the same amount of PAs as before the pandemic. The researchers in the current results showed that Qatari women and men experienced a reduction in PAs. The authors indicate that accounting for PAs within the disease-preventive measures is sufficient to practice some but not to maintain the same level of PAs. Accordingly, given the Qatari experience, governments should give even more consideration to PAs in future disease preventive measures to avoid the decline in PA participation, especially among the women (Clemente-Suarez et al., 2022).

Consistent with previous findings (Markofski et al., 2021; Zach et al., 2021), we report that participation in PA was associated with greater positive emotions, confirming the importance of PA for mental health. Given the impact of COVID-19 on mental health (Ammar et al., 2021; Kola et al., 2021; Zhang & Lange, 2021), authorities across the globe have called for preventive measures to lower the detrimental effects of COVID-19 on mental health. One of the most promising strategies is to encourage people to participate in regular PA. It is associated with lower risk of mental health problems (Bhattacharjee & Acharya, 2020). Additionally, it lowers the risk of developing negative emotions and enhances positive emotions (Zach et al., 2021), without showing a gender affect (Markofski et al., 2021). Interestingly, we report herein that the relationship of PA with emotions is gender-specific, suggesting that the potential emotional benefits of PA might influence the men more than the women. The reported results are unprecedented thus difficult to explain. However, we speculate that the lower participation in PA among the women versus the men might partially explain the gender differences in the emotional benefits. Alternatively, previous authors have shown that women are at a higher risk of experiencing mental health problems (Kiely et al., 2019). Subsequently, women may need special consideration when designing PAs (Matud & Diaz, 2020) to avoid mental problems during disease breakouts. Nonetheless, the authors herein suggest more studies to confirm these findings and verify these speculations

Implications

Participation in PA and SA is known to be different in the women versus the men, before the pandemic, which requires alternative interventions and plans to implement PA among women. Similarly, the authors’ findings in the current study confirms gender differences in PA supporting the need for special considerations to enhance women participation in PA during emergencies like to COVID19. The Qatari government’s initiative to allow outdoor participation in PA during the pandemic was sufficient to participate in some but not to maintain PAs. Additionally, women reported lower PA versus men. Importantly, the relationship between PA and positive emotions was specific to men. Together, these results suggest that government regulations to restrain the spread of pandemics should prioritize PA to minimize the negative mental effects of disease-induced confinement. The authors suggest that regulations should also give special considerations to women’s participation in PA to help them endure any undesirable mental effects of pandemics.

Limitations

The sample size and study design might be insufficient to generalize and establish cause-and-effect relationships. The study was conducted in Qatar, a small and high-income Arabic-speaking Middle Eastern country, which might indicate that the findings are applicable to other Arabic countries. Additionally, data were collected using online questionnaires, which might be biased toward self-selection. Therefore, multisite studies with larger sample sizes and a longitudinal design using objective measures are warranted.

Conclusions

The authors showed that the men and women were able to enjoy some PAs but not to maintain the same level under “lenient” COVID-19 prevention protocols. Additionally, the women showed lower participation in PA than the men during the pandemic. Importantly, the role of the PA to ameliorate the adverse emotional effects of disease-induced confinement seem to be gender specific. Therefore, plans and strategies need to be designed and implemented to address the changes and gender differences in PA during the pandemic. Furthermore, additional consideration are warranted while implementing strategies and plans to maintain PA among women. However, other researchers should confirm the results and further understand PA and emotional changes during the pandemic, especially among women in future studies.

Declarations

All authors declare no conflict of interest or financial interests. Ethical approval for participation in this study is in accordance and provided by Qatar University’s Institutional Review Board. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before completing the study procedures. All authors contributed equally to the manuscript preparation.

Additional information

Funding

Open Access funding provided by the Qatar National Library. Authors acknowledge the Qatar University for the support.