Abstract
Personal selling and sales management are undergoing a major transformation driven by an increased use of digital technologies. Despite the potential that digitalization holds, many sales organizations struggle to realize the benefits of digital technologies. While the extant sales literature has studied the impact of digital technologies on sales, it tends to consider sales organizations broadly as uniform structures and provides fewer insights on the potential impacts between different levels within sales organizations. Consequently, this study explores how digital technology use in sales results in multiple tensions leading to both positive and negative consequences and how they are experienced differently at multiple levels (sales director, sales manager, salesperson). We draw empirical insights from 32 interviews with sales professionals in ten different organizations in the Australian construction industry. The findings reveal six tensions (autonomy, innovation, information, interaction, resource, and control) and show how these tensions can be perceived differently at each level. These findings advance the contemporary personal selling and sales management literature by offering a multi-level perspective that explains why and how the use of digital technologies can have both positive and negative consequences in sales organizations and generates important insights for sales managers who are adopting digital technologies.
The use of digital technologies has profoundly transformed modern personal sales and sales management, changing both the nature and future of the sales profession drastically as well as irrevocably (Cuevas Citation2018; Syam and Sharma Citation2018; Singh et al. Citation2019). Consequently, sales organizations across industries have been investing billions in new digital technologies in the hope of realizing their potential and improving sales force efficiency and effectiveness (Alavi and Habel Citation2021). And yet, despite massive investments, several studies report that sales organizations struggle to derive value from their digital transformation efforts (Guenzi and Habel Citation2020; Zoltners et al. Citation2021).
While a growing body of sales management literature has considered the impact of digital technologies on sales organizations, prior studies provide relatively mixed and conflicting results. For example, whereas some studies have demonstrated that digital technology use in sales leads to benefits including improved speed of service and time and cost savings (Zoltners et al. Citation2021; Mattila, Yrjölä, and Hautamäki Citation2021), other studies have found that such use is not always beneficial (Guenzi and Nijssen Citation2021; Zoltners et al. Citation2021) and can even have negative consequences at the individual level (i.e., overload and stress) and organizational level (i.e., reducing sales performance) (Delpechitre, Black, and Farrish Citation2019; Román, Rodríguez, and Jaramillo Citation2018). With such mixed insights, it is difficult to gain a clear understanding of the holistic impact of digital technologies on sales organizations, and, as echoed by expert researchers, ‘a lack of clarity regarding how digital technologies will shape opportunities and threats for the sales profession’ remains a critical gap in the current sales management literature (Singh et al. Citation2019, 3).
Furthermore, much of the extant literature on the impact of digital technologies in sales takes a relatively broad perspective but does not differentiate between impacts on different actors in the sales organization (Rodríguez, Svensson, and Mehl Citation2020; Badrinarayanan, Madhavaram, and Manis Citation2022). In reality, the sales organization is a complicated and multi-level organism, (Borg and Young Citation2014), and digital technologies are likely to impact each level differently. However, the current sales literature offers limited insights about the differential impacts in, and potential dynamics between, different levels in sales organizations that manifest as a result of digital technology use. This is an important issue, since the lack of a more detailed understanding of the consequences of an increasing use of digital technologies for different sales professionals is likely to hinder the adoption, optimal utilization, and management of digital technologies in sales organizations (c.f. Singh et al. Citation2019; Guenzi and Habel Citation2020).
To address this critical gap, the purpose of this study is to identify and understand the positive and negative consequences of digital technology use at and between multiple levels in sales organizations by addressing the following research question: ‘How do the consequences of digital technology use by sales organizations manifest at and between different levels?’ To do so, we review the relevant sales management literature that considers the impacts of digital technologies and draw insights from an exploratory field study based on 32 qualitative in-depth interviews with sales directors, sales managers, and salespeople in 10 large industrial sales organizations in the Australian construction industry. To analyze the data, we apply a tensions perspective, which considers how contradictory forces can cause conflicting outcomes and consequences (Fang, Chang, and Peng Citation2011). Tensions are a well-established conceptual lens in the broader marketing and management literature and are often used to explain how new technological, digital, or strategic initiatives can deliver benefits to some actors while imposing costs on others within organizations or business networks (e.g., Tura et al. 2019; Malshe and Krush Citation2021). In this study, the tensions perspective helps to explain and capture how digital technology use in sales organizations manifests at and between different levels.
The findings from this study reveal that the use of digital technologies can lead to six major tensions (autonomy, innovation, information, interaction, resource, and control tensions) that manifest as positive and/or negative consequences at different levels simultaneously. We illustrate how specific tensions can be either symmetric (experienced similarly at each level) or asymmetric (experienced differently at each level). This study contributes to the contemporary personal selling and sales management research by offering a multi-level perspective that illuminates the complex and conflicting consequences that digital technology use in sales organizations can have and, in particular, sheds more light on the dark side of digital technology use, which is an important yet little understood topic in modern sales organizations (Delpechitre, Black, and Farrish Citation2019; Singh et al. Citation2019). For managers, this study reveals tensions that might hinder benefit realization from digital technologies and offers recommendations on how to manage or mitigate them.
Literature review
What do we know about the consequences of digital technology use in sales?
The use of digital technologies by sales professionals in industrial business to business (B2B) markets has been studied for more than 20 years, and academic interest in the role of digital technologies in modern B2B selling practice continues to grow (Fischer, Seidenstricker, and Poeppelbuss Citation2022). Early research into the use of digital technologies by salespeople focused on understanding how specific technologies, such as customer relationship management (CRM), social media, mobile technology, and various salesforce automation (SFA) technologies, impacted sales and relationship outcomes (e.g., (Andzulis, Panagopoulos, and Rapp Citation2012; Román, Rodríguez, and Jaramillo Citation2018). More recently, however, studies have begun to look at the use of multiple digital technologies simultaneously as part of holistic digital sales strategies rather than considering the impacts of each technology separately (Zoltners et al. Citation2021; Guenzi and Habel Citation2020). Additionally, scholars have begun to study the digitalization and digital transformation of selling (Guenzi and Habel Citation2020; Fischer, Seidenstricker, and Poeppelbuss Citation2022), which refers not only to the use of digital technologies by salespeople to improve their selling efficiency and effectiveness, but also how sales organizations – and the associated roles and practices of individuals within those organizations – change as a result of digital technology use. This significant and growing academic interest in digital technology use in sales indicates that the sales profession is changing as a result of digital technologies and that digital technology use is important to modern B2B selling outcomes (Moncrief Citation2017; Thaichon et al. Citation2018; Singh et al. Citation2019).
Despite significant research focus in this area, however, the extant literature provides a relatively mixed and conflicting picture of the outcomes of digital technology use in sales. For example, while some studies describe only the benefits of digital technology use, including improved knowledge, communication, productivity, sales performance, customer orientation, and relational outcomes (Barney-McNamara et al. Citation2021; Bowen et al. Citation2021), others describe only its negative effects, including increased role stress, higher workload, loss of autonomy, uncertainty, and, in some cases, decreased sales performance (e.g., (Delpechitre, Black, and Farrish Citation2019; Jelinek Citation2013). A few studies have identified that both positive and negative effects can result from digital technology use simultaneously, For example, Matthews et al. (Matthews et al. Citation2018) identify that digital technologies can have both positive and negative effects on salespeople by simplifying some tasks and complicating others or by reducing burnout in some circumstances but increasing it in others. Likewise, Moncreif, Marshall, and Rudd (2015) identify that sales managers experience both positive and negative outcomes of digital technology use by improving their ability to measure and train the salesforce but having less face time with representatives and a higher workload. However, most of these studies have focused on understanding the outcomes from only one perspective – either at salesperson level or sales manager level – or by considering the sales organization holistically.
Only a few studies have identified the differing effects of digital technology use at multiple levels in sales organizations. Notably, Gohmann et al. (Citation2005) conducted a quantitative study to explore how perceptions of SFA use differ between sales managers and salespeople, finding that sales managers often perceive greater performance benefits than salespeople do. For example, sales managers’ perception of productivity improvement resulting from SFA use was nearly 25% higher than that of salespeople. Jelinek (Citation2013) found that sales managers and salespeople have different perceptions of what constitutes technology usage – specifically, how much use of technology constitutes full adoption – and this is a limiting factor in the success of sales technology projects. Nonetheless, these studies are relatively dated, and while they identify differences in the consequences of technology use at different levels of the sales organization, the literature could benefit from a more recent and nuanced understanding of how and why these differences occur and what happens when they do. Overall, the current sales literature illustrates a wide range of different positive and negative consequences from digital technology use in sales (see for an overview).
Table 1. Review of key studies on the effects, impacts, and consequences of digital technologies in B2B sales.
A tensions perspective on digital technology use in sales
While previous studies reveal that positive and negative consequences can result from digital technology use in sales simultaneously, few recent studies have investigated the circumstances that cause these contradictory consequences to manifest. While this might be an under-researched area in the sales literature, there is a growing stream of management literature which explains the simultaneous manifestations of contradictory forces as tensions (Pardo, Ivens, and Niersbach Citation2020; Gregory et al. Citation2015). Tensions relate to conflicts and contradictions which manifest between actors in business networks (Toth et al. Citation2018; Chou and Zlokiewski Citation2018). They are often treated as dynamic choices that seem to be in opposition and can cause structural, psychological, behavioral, and economic conflicts between actors at multiple levels, including individuals, groups, and organizations (Burton et al. Citation2016; Tura et al. Citation2019).
Tensions can take three forms: (i) paradoxes, where contradictory elements exist simultaneously; (ii) dilemmas, which are competing choices, each with advantages and disadvantages; and (iii) dialectics, which are contradictory elements that can be resolved through integration (Smith and Lewis Citation2011). Importantly, tensions can exist in two states: (i) salient, where the contradictory forces are perceived by actors as tensions; and (ii) latent, where the forces exist but are not perceived as tensions. This means that in some situations, tensions can exist even if they are not recognized as such by the actors experiencing them (Smith and Lewis Citation2011). The increasing scope and complexity of the sales organization are well documented (Moncrief Citation2017; Cuevas Citation2018; Singh et al. Citation2019) and often result in actors at one level conducting activities having objectives which compete or conflict with those of actors at other levels, and this can produce an environment where the conflict and opposition which manifest tensions can exist. As such, tensions provide a good analytical lens to analyze the activities, outcomes, and consequences of technology use inside sales organizations.
Previous research in non-sales-related streams has identified several tension types which can result from technology use (see for an overview). For example, autonomy tensions (Mazmanian, Orlikowski, and Yates Citation2013) relate to situations where the use of digital technologies creates mobility and freedom but simultaneously requires increased engagement. Control tensions (Brandimarte, Acquisti, and Loewenstein Citation2013; Pirkkalainen et al. Citation2019) relate to situations where the use of digital technologies for monitoring and control can also lead to disadvantages such as stress or loss of privacy. Innovation tensions (Kohli and Melville Citation2019; Ouyang et al. Citation2020) relate to tensions caused by change from existing to new and emerging ways of doing things. Productivity tensions relate to situations where the use of technology to improve productivity also results in productively losses (Grisé and Gallupe Citation1999; Lin and Shao Citation2006). Information tensions (Punj Citation2019) occur when there is a conflict between the quantity and quality of information available, and interaction tensions occur when technology simultaneously improves and impedes interaction between actors and organizations (Kokshagina 2022). While provides an overview of the tensions in the current literature, in the future, other tensions might emerge given that technology is changing, and organizations are adapting to these tensions and technologies.
Table 2. Recent studies on digitalization and tensions.
While previous research recognizes the potential for digital technologies to create tensions between different levels of the same organization (Malshe and Krush Citation2021) and that tensions can exist at individual and firm level simultaneously (Kokshagina Citation2022), we still know little about how tensions manifest between actors at multiple levels within organizations or within functional units (e.g., the sales department) where objectives should be aligned. Therefore, the aim of this study is not to identify all possible tensions, but to understand how sales professionals across multiple levels experience tensions when using digital technologies.
Methods/research design
Research approach
To examine the potential positive and negative consequences of digital technology use at different levels in sales organizations, we adopted a qualitative research approach, which is particularly suitable to elicit deep insights on sensitive and multi-layered social issues and interactions in complex actor networks (Halinen and Törnroos Citation2005; Yin, Citation2018). Furthermore, our approach is aligned with the moderate constructivist perspective (Järvensivu and Törnroos Citation2010), which acknowledges the possibility that multiple subjective realities co-exist in the same system and that different actors can have different experiences and perceptions of a specific phenomenon in the same local context (c.f., Pinnington, Meehan, and Scanlon Citation2016). In practice, this approach helps us to identify and capture how individual actors at different levels of the sales organization subjectively experience and perceive digital technology usage, then compare the collective perceptions across different levels (i.e., salespeople, sales managers, sales directors).
Data collection
Our empirical inquiry focused on the Australian construction industry, which is relatively under-digitalized but undergoing a major transformation toward increased use of digital technologies (Agarwal, Sridhar, and Chandrasekaran Citation2016), thus offering a fruitful context to examine the emergent consequences of digital technology use. We used purposive sampling logic (Patton Citation2015) to identify construction industry suppliers who (i) had implemented digital technologies, and (ii) granted us research access to multiple levels in their sales organizations. We increased the diversity of the sample by selecting suppliers who operated in various product categories (plumbing, building, electrical, etc.). Data was collected via in-depth interviews with sales directors, sales managers, and salespeople, who represented the three levels of the sales organization in participating firms. While the titles of these roles differed between organizations, we were able to classify them according to their responsibilities. For example, sales directors can be seen as strategic managers who are responsible for the organization’s sales strategy (Thaichon et al. Citation2018; Panagopoulos and Avlonitis Citation2010). Sales managers are middle managers who are responsible for the management of multiple salespeople and ensuring that their activities align with the firm’s sales strategy (Reid et al. Citation2017). Salespeople are responsible for conducting sales activities to execute on the firm’s sales strategy (Moncrief and Marshall Citation2005; Sharma and Syam Citation2018; Cuevas Citation2018).
Overall, we conducted 32 interviews across 10 construction industry suppliers, with various combinations of respondents at each level of the sales organization. Individual respondents were selected based on their business and product type, and we aimed to have a mix of respondents at several levels in the same firm where possible. We used a broad thematic interview guide and semi-structured interview format to give the respondents freedom to focus on their subjective and idiosyncratic experiences and facilitate naturally occurring data (Creswell and Poth Citation2016). All the interviews were conducted through Microsoft Teams, digitally recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes, and an overview of the respondents is provided in .
Table 3. Overview of data collected.
Data analysis
To analyze our data, we used abductive coding strategy (Dubois and Gadde Citation2002, 2014), which unfolded in two key stages. To make sense of the interviews, we started by openly coding our data. Our initial coding procedure followed an incident-to-incident approach (Charmaz Citation2006), in which we treated any information surrounding a tension caused by a digital technology as a relevant incident. We analyzed the general sentiment of these incidents (quotes) and sorted them into positive and negative categories. We discussed the emerging codes and started to compare and contrast the tensions that we learned about from our data with prior tension-related literature. We subsequently clustered quotes that shared similar characteristics and properties into thematically similar higher-order categories that described emerging tensions that impacted sales organizations. During this stage we iterated between the empirical data and extant literature and revised and refined our interpretations by merging, integrating, and renaming overlapping categories. At the end of this stage, we had identified six types of tensions (autonomy, innovation, information, interaction, resource, and control tensions) that emerged in our data and are aligned with prior literature. For example, autonomy tensions are aligned with the autonomy tension discovered by Mazmanian, Orlikowski, and Yates (Citation2013). Likewise, innovation (Brandimarte, Acquisti, and Loewenstein Citation2013) and control tensions (Kohli and Melville Citation2019) have been previously identified. Our analysis and its resulting positive and negative consequences are described in . What we capture are the positive and negative consequences experienced by different sales professionals. Figure 1 provides illustrative quotes for each category.
Figure 1. How tensions emerged abductively from our data.
In the second stage we conducted cross-analyses of our data to compare how the emerging tensions were experienced by respondents at different hierarchical level (sales directors, sales managers, salespeople). This helped us to capture the multilevel impacts and dynamics inside sales organizations and develop rich insights on how the impacts of digital technology use were experienced differently at different levels. At the end of the second stage, we integrated the emerging categories. This process and the resulting multi-level impacts can be seen in and and are described in our findings.
Figure 2. How multi-level tensions manifest between and across levels in our data.
Table 4. The different tensions experienced by sales directors, sales managers, and salespeople.
Findings
How technology use manifests as tensions
From our data we identified that despite the manifold benefits, technology use in sales can also lead to negative consequences which manifest as different tensions experienced by salespeople, sales managers, and sales directors. Based on our data, we observed six different tensions that were related to autonomy, innovation, information, interaction, resources, and control (see ). These tensions occurred between and within levels of the sales organization differently. In this section we describe the six tensions and provide examples to indicate how each is experienced by actors at each level of the sales organization.
Autonomy tensions
Autonomy tensions relate to situations where technology use can result in the positive consequences of improved autonomy but can also result in the negative consequences of increased availability, which can manifest as tensions. Across our sample we observed these tensions manifest where increased autonomy, such as the possibility of choosing when, where, and how to work, provided many benefits, for example by improving the role flexibility and work–life balance of salespeople.
Technology has improved my flexibility and work-life balance. Previously, our business was adamant that we had to come into the office several days a week, but the world has changed. Now I basically don’t even need an office. (Salesperson, Firm I)
However, increased autonomy also requires salespeople and sales managers to increase their availability during and outside working hours, which can result in role stress, increased workload, and negative impacts on work–life balance.
When I first started, I’d finish work at five o’clock, put the bag down, and that’s the day done until the morning. Now you get home, and all the technology is around you the whole time – laptops, mobile phones, iPads – you’re at the constant mercy of having the phone go off. (Salesperson, Firm H)
Innovation tensions
Innovation tensions relate to tensions because of change from existing to new and emerging ways of doing things. We identified these tensions in situations where members of the sales organization resist the adoption of some technologies because it is either too difficult to change or the value of the technology is not apparent to them. For example, we identified that some salespeople assess the value of each new technology against the costs required to adopt it and make conscious decisions to adopt some technologies and ignore others.
I’ve been selective about what I’ve invested my time in. It’s all about what helps me achieve my goals, not what I’m being forced to use. I want to know what it’s going to do for me before I invest my time in it. (Salesperson 2, Firm A)
We identified that lack of adoption was a major frustration and challenge for sales directors who want to see a return on their technology investments and for sales managers who struggle with the challenges of persuading their salesforce to adopt new technologies.
In some cases, we’re trying to change 25 to 30 years of learned behavior, so it’s very challenging. (Sales Manager, Firm D)
Information tensions
Information tensions relate to situations where the use of technologies exponentially increases the quantity of information available for use by actors in the sales organization but also results in reduced information quality and security. For example, in the sales context, thanks to digital technologies such as CRM and sales analytics systems, organizations have better access to sales and customer information and a better understanding of revenue sources, customer motivation, and sales conversion rates. These have positive effects on decision making and enable better access to and dissemination of knowledge.
The data can be extrapolated, and we can see what it looks like, over a period of time. We can see where we’re strong, where we need to improve, where we’re successful and where we aren’t, what works and what doesn’t work. (Sales Director, Firm G)
However, with larger quantities of data, it is harder to control quality. Sales directors and sales managers express concerns about the quality of the data available to them, particularly the data contained in CRM systems, which are entered by salespeople.
Some of the information in CRM is very vague and doesn’t really add value, and it’s clear that somebody just created a visit to tick a box to meet a KPI and, unfortunately, if you put rubbish data in, you get rubbish data out. (Sales Manager, Firm B)
Sales directors also face challenges regarding how much information they share with sales managers and salespeople because they need to balance concern about the security of the information against the need to provide information to the salesforce.
They (salespeople) can’t extract it (the information) back out of CRM, it’s locked. I can understand it because the business is scared that their data will be taken by somebody. (Sales Manager, Firm A)
Interaction tensions
Interaction tensions relate to situations where technology is used to change the way salespeople interact with their customers and other actors in the sales organization. This results in challenges and opportunities to improve interactions. For example, thanks to multiple communication platforms (e.g., social media, instant messaging, video conferencing), salespeople can personalize their communication to suit each customer’s needs, which improves customer relationships.
We’ve started conducting webinars and digital training as a more efficient way to interact with customers, and it’s being embraced by the reps and customers even for highly technical training. Things are evolving quickly in this digital space. (Sales Manager, Firm A)
However, our data also indicate that new communication channels can result in concerns for salespeople about their job security because they enable customers to avoid salespeople and communicate directly with other actors in the sales organization.
It’s the beginning of the end for salespeople because once these customers can do this themselves, why do they need us? (Salesperson, Firm E)
Technologies can also be less effective than face-to-face interactions because digital communications can be blocked, overlooked, or ignored, all of which are more difficult in face-to-face interactions, in which salespeople build more effective relationships with customers.
We’re just all humans at the end of the day. If we have a good relationship, it really helps. And once you get someone face to face, you can eyeball them, shake their hand, and build rapport. So, I think that that pure human interaction is a big loss. It can be very hard to build a relationship via a digital platform. (Salesperson, Firm D)
Resource tensions
Resource tensions relate to situations where technology is used to provide economic benefits by reducing sales costs or making better use of human resources but can also result in negative consequences of increased sales and administration costs, which can manifest as tensions. For example, digital technologies can have positive resource consequences for sales directors because they enable tasks to be automated and accelerated, making salespeople more efficient, which can result in reduced sales cost.
Salespeople are critical, but they are also quite demanding and expensive, and in the absence of accurate data, you could be wasting that money, and that means running a very expensive business. Our systems provide us with data to make our salespeople as efficient as possible. (Sales Director Firm C)
However, such technologies also result in negative consequences because they can be costly to implement and often require additional resources to manage and administer, resulting in increased ongoing costs and human resource requirements.
And the good thing is that updates come out all the time, and the bad thing is that updates come out all the time. And the reason I say that is because it means we need to have people to constantly implement the updates, otherwise we end up getting left behind and we don’t get the advantages which makes it a resource issue we’ve got. (Sales Director, Firm A)
Control tensions
Control tensions relate to situations where technology use in sales can have the positive consequence of improved transparency but can also have the negative consequence of increased surveillance, which can manifest as tensions. Across our sample, we observed these tensions whereby a technology which was used to increase the transparency of salespeople’s activities provided particular benefits for sales managers and sales directors by improving their ability to monitor and control the salesforce.
This type of digital measurement, where everyone can see everyone’s activities live, helps to create a culture where there are no blind spots and, at the end of the quarter, we can identify who is performing and who needs assistance. (Sales Director, Firm F)
However, our data indicate that increased transparency also has negative consequences at other levels, for example by increasing the overall pursuit of increased activity (e.g., more sales calls), which, in turn, increases workload and stress for sales managers and salespeople and can divert focus from more effective selling tasks.
Salespeople are so worried about technology in the background that they’ve stopped focusing on the job at hand. Instead, they are worrying more about what they are doing on technology and how it makes them look to their managers. (Salesperson, Firm A)
How tensions manifest across multiple levels of the sales organization
The consequences of digital technology use impact sales professionals in different ways. The tensions are perceived positively, negatively, positively and negatively, or neither positively nor negatively by individuals in the sales organization. Our data indicate that while these perceptions are largely subjective, individuals at the same level generally share similar perceptions. For example, most of the sales directors in our study experienced mainly positive consequences of increased control, salespeople generally experienced negative control consequences, and sales managers experienced both positive and negative control consequences simultaneously (see Figure 1 and ). This finding indicates that hierarchical role differences between individuals in the sales organization influences the perception of the consequences of technology use.
Further analysis revealed that most of the tensions experienced by sales directors were strategic in nature, for example related to resource allocation or data security, while most of those experienced by salespeople were operational in nature, for example related to the use of technology for the execution of sales activities. Sales managers generally experienced both strategic and operational tensions, reinforcing their role as intermediaries between strategic and operational levels. describes how tensions were experienced at each level in our study and highlights how sales professionals experience the consequences of technology use differently depending on their level within the sales organization and the corresponding organization within the firm. The data in also highlights two different types of multi-level tensions that can manifest in sales organizations, which we refer to as symmetric tensions and asymmetric tensions. Symmetric tensions relate to tensions that are experienced similarly at various levels (and are identified by shaded columns in ), whereas asymmetric tensions relate to tensions that are experienced differently at different levels (and are identified by unshaded columns in ). Note that certain tensions can be experienced symmetrically between one pair of levels but asymmetrically between another.
From our data, we identified several examples where tensions had manifested symmetrically. For example, we identified that all levels experienced innovation tensions in a similar way, namely as challenges in adapting to the changes required to adopt some technologies. We also identified that all levels experienced information tensions similarly, that is, as tensions resulting from access to greater amounts of information. Our data also revealed that while sales managers and salespeople experienced interaction and autonomy tensions symmetrically, sales directors experienced only the positive consequences of these tensions and often lacked cognition of the negative consequences at other levels. This finding led us to identify asymmetric tensions which relate to situations where the consequences of technology use are experienced differently at different levels. Further analysis led us to identify that asymmetric tensions could manifest in different ways, revealing two sub-types of asymmetric tensions: positive asymmetric tensions and negative asymmetric tensions.
Positive asymmetric tensions relate to situations where the positive consequences of technology use at one or more levels relate to negative consequences at other levels. In our data, we saw these tensions manifest primarily where actors at senior levels forced actors at lower levels to adopt or use technologies which provided benefits at the higher level but resulted in negative consequences at the lower level. For example, we identified that control tensions can manifest as positive asymmetric tensions when sales managers monitor the activities of salespeople for greater control, but this creates anxiety and resentment among the salesforce. Likewise, we identified positive asymmetric autonomy tensions where sales managers provided technology which enabled salespeople to work remotely but then expected them to answer phone calls and emails after hours, which negatively affected the salesperson’s work–life balance. In some instances, we identified that positive asymmetric tensions were the result of intentional actions by the senior level to create benefits at the expense of lower levels. For example, positive asymmetric information tensions resulted from the actions of sales directors to restrict the access of salespeople to certain information to protect the security of that information with the consequence that the salespeople were unable to use important information, which affected their job performance. However, we also identified instances where positive asymmetric tensions resulted from actions intended to provide benefits to the lower level and, instead, resulted in unforeseen drawbacks. For example, positive asymmetric innovation tensions arose when sales managers took action to provide their salesforce with the technology to work remotely but this resulted in adoption challenges for salespeople and sales managers.
Negative asymmetric tensions, on the other hand, relate to situations where the negative consequences of technology use for one or more levels result in more negative consequences at other levels. Negative asymmetric tensions are often the unavoidable or unforeseen result of coping mechanisms employed by one level to mitigate negative consequences which end up creating negative consequences at other levels. In some instances, we identified that negative asymmetric tensions magnified an existing tension. For example, information tensions manifested when sales managers ignored information provided by salespeople because they were concerned about the integrity or quality of that information, and, as a result, salespeople reduced their future efforts to gather and provide quality information, thus exacerbating the initial information tension. In other instances, we identified that negative asymmetric tensions led to or magnified different tensions which had previously been latent. For example, when faced with the negative consequences of control tensions – such as feeling distrusted or watched – some salespeople responded by providing false or misleading information to the organization, which resulted in new information tensions because sales managers were no longer able to trust the information provided to them by the salesforce.
Overall, our analysis revealed a complicated relationship between different tensions and tension types and how they manifest across different levels of the sales organization, and we identified that, in most instances where tensions were observed, they were not experienced in isolation. In fact, we identified multiple symmetric and asymmetric tensions manifesting simultaneously across multiple levels of the sales organization in most instances. We attempt to capture these relationships between tensions and tension types from our data in .
The figure demonstrates that multiple symmetric, positive asymmetric, and negative asymmetric tensions can co-exist within the sales organization simultaneously. Our data show that sales managers experienced the most multi-level tensions, closely followed by salespeople, while sales directors experienced fewer multi-level tensions. It is also interesting to note how several tensions were experienced differently between levels. For example, in our data, we identified that autonomy tensions were experienced as positive asymmetric tensions between sales directors and sales managers, but the same tensions were experienced differently between salespeople and sales managers, namely as positive, negative, and symmetric tensions. Likewise, information tensions were experienced as all three tension types between sales directors and salespeople, whereas information tensions were only experienced two ways between sales managers and sales directors. This finding highlights that actors can perceive the consequences of digital technology use differently, even when those consequences occur in the same context. All of the symmetric, positive asymmetric, and negative asymmetric tensions we identified in our data are described in .
Discussion
In the previous section, we identified that (i) technology use can lead to six different types of tensions in sales organizations: autonomy, innovation, information, interaction, resource, and control; (ii) each tension is experienced differently by actors at different levels of the sales organization; and (iii) these different perceptions of tensions can lead to multi-level tensions that manifest as three key types/sub-types: symmetric, positive asymmetric, and negative asymmetric. In this section, we briefly discuss what these findings tell us about the multi-level consequences of digital technology use in sales organizations
Multiple tensions occur simultaneously
Our study reveals many potential combinations of tensions and tension types that can manifest across sales organizations, and we identify that, in most instances, these tensions are not experienced in isolation. In reality, many of the tensions and tension types identified in this study will manifest simultaneously, resulting in a complex web of tensions within the sales organization that can limit a firm’s ability to realize value from its digital technology investments. Exactly how damaging these tensions are to the organization will depend on any number of factors specific to the individuals, organizations, and environments in which the tensions occur, but we believe that it is possible for all the six tensions and three tension types/subtypes to manifest between each level of the sales organization simultaneously.
Not all tensions are experienced by all actors
Our study also reveals that tensions can be experienced differently by different sales professionals, indicating that the hierarchical role of an actor in the sales organization and the scope of their roles can impact the perception of the consequences of technology use. We observe that the tensions experienced by actors in sales organizations are closely related to the nature of the activities they conduct, that is, whether such activities are strategic or operational. Therefore, while it is possible for actors at all levels to experience all tensions, more of the tensions experienced by sales directors are strategic in nature, those experienced by salespeople are mostly operational in nature, and those by sales managers tend to be both strategic and operational. Interestingly, we find that some actors perceive tensions where others do not, even when using the same technologies in similar contexts. This is in line with previous work that suggests that not everyone is equally accepting of and energized by tensions (Miron-Spektor et al. Citation2018) and that capability to perceive and cope with tensions also depend on the individual agency (Berti and Simpson Citation2021). This indicates that the manifestation of tensions relies on individual factors specific to the actors experiencing them and the agency that they might have in their respective role, as this will determine the intensity of strategic and operational tensions for each role. Consequently, the resolution to tensions inside sales organizations requires a management lens which considers not only the perspective of different actors at different levels, but also accepts that some tensions will be latent for some actors and salient for others, even in similar contexts. As intermediaries between strategic and operational levels, middle managers are exposed to both strategic and operational consequences and are often the best positioned to mediate tensions between strategic and operational levels inside sales organization, and to improve the cognition of tensions at all levels.
Some tensions are more challenging to sales organizations than others
While it is difficult to predict how damaging multi-level tensions can be, we suspect that some tension types are more challenging and enduring than others. For example, while symmetric tensions can create tensions at all levels, their consequences are experienced in a similar way at each level and, as a result, one would expect that organization-wide commitment to the resolution of these tensions could more easily be gained and it is less likely that those resolutions benefit any one level at the expense of others.
Positive asymmetric tensions, on the other hand, result in consequences which are experienced differently at different levels – positively at one level and negatively at another. As a result, these tensions are more likely to lead to conflicts between levels, as one level will be unwilling to give up the positive consequences, while another will be unwilling to accept the negative ones. These tensions require actors at different levels to work together and make compromises which reduce the negative effects at one level while retaining some of the benefits at others.
Negative asymmetric tensions are potentially the most damaging because they are the result of conflicting negative consequences at multiple levels. For example, the negative consequences at one level are the direct result of negative consequences at another and, often, these tensions are made worse by mitigation strategies which benefit one level at the expense of others. Consequently, these tensions can lead to conflicts between levels that are more difficult to resolve and more likely to require intense negotiations between actors at different levels to unwind the negative consequences at all levels.
Implications
Theoretical contributions
Our study provides three theoretical contributions to contemporary personal selling and sales management research. First, we demonstrate how digital technology use in sales can have positive and negative consequences that manifest as tensions inside sales organizations. While previous studies in sales research have identified numerous positive and negative consequences from digital technology use (Delpechitre, Black, and Farrish Citation2019; Bongers, Schumann, and Schmitz Citation2021), they are usually limited to single technologies or technology types, such as CRM systems or SFA, or tend to emphasize either positive or negative consequences in isolation. In contrast, we take a broader view by considering the use of multiple digital technologies and positive and negative consequences simultaneously. This provides a more realistic and holistic perspective on real-life sales practice, which is increasingly using multiple digital technologies as a part of organizational sales strategy (Zoltners et al. Citation2021; Guenzi and Habel Citation2020). Specifically, we show how the use of digital technologies in sales can lead to six tensions that are related to (i) autonomy, (ii) innovation, (iii) interaction, (iv) information, (v) resources, and (vi) control and illustrate what kind of positive and negative consequences each tension creates for different actors in sales organizations. This responds to recent calls to provide more clarity on the potential opportunities and challenges that digital technology use can bring for the sales profession and how digital technologies can simultaneously aid and hinder both sales management and selling practice (Singh et al. Citation2019).
Second, we illustrate how tensions from digital technology use are experienced across different levels in sales organizations. While previous studies on the consequences of technology use in sales have considered impacts on sales organizations as a whole (Zoltners et al. Citation2021; Rodríguez, Svensson, and Mehl Citation2020), they do not differentiate between impacts on different hierarchical roles. In contrast, our study shows how sales directors, sales managers, and salespeople experience the impacts of digital technology use differently. For example, sales directors experience mostly strategic impacts, salespeople mostly operational impacts, and sales managers both strategic and operational impacts. This extends previous literature by providing a more granular and realistic understanding of the complex impacts and consequences that digital technology use may have in sales organizations and responds to calls to understand how digital technologies affect individual salespeople and sales managers (Alavi and Habel Citation2021).
Third, we define two types of multi-level tension manifestations: symmetric tensions and asymmetric tensions. While previous studies have identified many different types of tensions that can manifest as a result of digital technology use (Kohli and Melville Citation2019; Ouyang et al. Citation2020; Mazmanian, Orlikowski, and Yates Citation2013), they do not consider how the different perspectives of actors at different hierarchical levels can result in tensions which manifest between levels, for example where salespeople only experience positive consequences, but sales managers only experience negative consequences. In contrast, our study provides a multi-level perspective which highlights how tension symmetry or asymmetry can lead to different types of multi-level tension manifestations which can impact the firm differently. This advances our understanding of how tensions impact organizations and responds to calls to better understand the strategic impacts of tensions in organizations (Malshe and Krush Citation2021).
Managerial implications
For managers, this study offers several important implications. First, by being aware of possible tensions that digital technologies create in the organization and their types, managers within sales organizations can have a better understanding of how to structure and manage their digital transformation efforts.
Second, by illuminating how digital technology usage manifests at different levels in sales organizations, this study provides a nuanced picture of the complex and multifaceted consequences that digital technology use has on different individuals in the sales force. This helps sales managers to understand why and how individuals in different roles may experience the consequences of digital technology usage differently and identify the key sources of concern for specific roles. Consequently, managers can use these insights to design different support mechanisms and coping strategies that could help to alleviate or mitigate the potential negative consequences of technology use for different individuals and maximize the benefits from their digital transformation efforts.
Third, our study demonstrates the importance of sales managers in digital transformation efforts by highlighting their role as intermediaries between strategic and operational levels of the sales organization. While previous studies have identified the importance of management commitment to technology use (Trkman Citation2010), our study highlights that while other levels of the sales organization might be blinded to strategic or operational realities, sales managers are generally exposed to both viewpoints and therefore have an important role in mediating between strategic and operational imperatives. As middle managers, sales managers normally lead their teams through the change process – while potentially suffering from the changes themselves – and often face high levels of pressure. Moreover, sales managers are the ones who need to help their employees navigate and balance tensions that arise in the digital transformation context. Therefore, we advance sales managerial practice by identifying the increasing importance of sales managers in ensuring the firm realizes value from technology investments. Furthermore, we see how the hierarchical role of an actor in the sales organization influences the intensity and complexity of tensions experienced, which has important implications for job design and task distribution to help employees manage tensions.
Limitations and future research directions
While this study provides novel insights, it has some limitations. First, the research is set in a relatively immature technological environment where traditional practices are slowly being changed to digital ones. In more mature digital markets, the consequences of technology use may be less contradictory. Future research should seek to replicate these results in more mature digital markets. Second, this study focuses primarily on understanding the consequences of technology use in sales but does not consider the coping mechanisms implemented to manage these tensions. Future research should aim to understand how these tensions are managed in practice, that is, how not only sales professionals but others in the organization are impacted by transformation in sales practices. Third, this study does not consider the relative importance of positive or negative consequences, nor seek to understand the temporal nature of these consequences. It is possible that the opposing nature of some of the consequences will resolve themselves in the medium to long term, just as it is possible that the positive consequences of some tensions outweigh the negatives. Future research should aim to gain a deeper understanding of the relative importance of each of these tensions. Likewise, this study does not aim to understand the differences between firms who are successful in their digital transformation programs versus unsuccessful firms. It is possible that successful firms experience fewer multi-level tensions that unsuccessful ones, and this could help explain their successes. Future research should aim to understand how tensions manifest in successful digital firms as opposed to unsuccessful ones. Finally, the small sample size limits the generalizability of the findings, and future research could aim to verify and confirm the results across larger samples and more diverse groups of participants.
Correction Statement
This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
References
- Agarwal, Rajat, Mukund Sridhar, and Shankar Chandrasekaran. 2016. "Imagining Construction’s Digital Future." McKinsey Insights.
- Ahearne, Michael, Narasimhan Srinivasan, and Luke Weinstein. 2004. “Effect of Technology on Sales Performance: Progressing from Technology Acceptance to Technology Usage and Consequence.” The Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 24 (4):297–310. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2004.10749039.
- Alavi, Sascha, and Johannes Habel. 2021. “The Human Side of Digital Transformation in Sales: Review & Future Paths.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 41 (2):83–6. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2021.1920969.
- Ancillai, Chiara, Harri Terho, Silvio Cardinali, and Federica Pascucci. 2019. “Advancing Social Media Driven Sales Research: Establishing Conceptual Foundations for B-to-B Social Selling.” Industrial Marketing Management 82:293–308. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2019.01.002.
- Andzulis, James “Mick”, Nikolaos G. Panagopoulos, and Adam Rapp. 2012. “A Review of Social Media and Implications for the Sales Process.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 32 (3):305–16. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134320302.
- Avlonitis, George J., and Nikolaos G. Panagopoulos. 2005. “Antecedents and Consequences of CRM Technology Acceptance in the Sales Force.” Industrial Marketing Management 34 (4):355–68. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.09.021.
- Badrinarayanan, Vishag, Sreedhar Madhavaram, and K. T. Manis. 2022. “Technology-Enabled Sales Capability: A Capabilities-Based Contingency Framework.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 42 (4):358–76. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2022.2108823.
- Barney-McNamara, Barbara, James Peltier, Pavan Rao Chennamaneni, and Keith Eric Niedermeier. 2021. “A Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Antecedents and Consequences of Social Selling: A Theoretical Perspective and Research Agenda.” Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing 15 (1):147–78. doi: 10.1108/JRIM-05-2020-0108.
- Berti, Marco, and Ace V. Simpson. 2021. “The Dark Side of Organizational Paradoxes: The Dynamics of Disempowerment.” Academy of Management Review 46 (2):252–74. doi: 10.5465/amr.2017.0208.
- Bongers, Franziska M., Jan H. Schumann, and Christian Schmitz. 2021. “How the Introduction of Digital Sales Channels Affects Salespeople in Business-to-Business Contexts: A Qualitative Inquiry.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 41 (2):150–66. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2021.1906260.
- Borg, Susanne Wiatr, and Louise Young. 2014. “Continuing the Evolution of the Selling Process: A Multi-Level Perspective.” Industrial Marketing Management 43 (4):543–52. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2014.02.013.
- Bowen, Melanie, Christine Lai-Bennejean, Alexander Haas, and Deva Rangarajan. 2021. “Social Media in B2B Sales: Why and When Does Salesperson Social Media Usage Affect Salesperson Performance?” Industrial Marketing Management 96:166–82. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2021.05.007.
- Brandimarte, Laura, Alessandro Acquisti, and George Loewenstein. 2013. “Misplaced Confidences: Privacy and the Control Paradox.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 4 (3):340–7. doi: 10.1177/1948550612455931.
- Burton, Jamie, Vicky Story, Judy Zolkiewski, Chris Raddats, Tim S. Baines, and Dominic Medway. 2016. “Identifying Tensions in the Servitized Value Chain.” Research-Technology Management 59 (5):38–47. doi: 10.1080/08956308.2016.1208042.
- Bush, Alan J., Victoria D. Bush, Linda M. Orr, and Richard A. Rocco. 2007. “Sales Technology: Help or Hindrance to Ethical Behaviors and Productivity?” Journal of Business Research 60 (11):1198–205. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.04.007.
- Charmaz, Kathy. 2006. Constructing grounded theory: a practical guide through qualitative analysis, Introducing qualitative methods. London: SAGE.
- Chen, Jing, and Wenkai Zhou. 2022. “Drivers of Salespeople’s AI Acceptance: What Do Managers Think?" The Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 42 (2):107–20. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2021.2016058.
- Chou, Hsin-Hui, and Judy Zolkiewski. 2018. “Coopetition and value creation and appropriation: The role of interdependencies, tensions and harmony.” Industrial Marketing Management 70:25–33.
- Creswell, John W., and Cheryl N. Poth. 2016. Qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches. Fourth edition. ed, Qualitative inquiry and research design. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.
- Cuevas, Marcos Javier. 2018. “The Transformation of Professional Selling: Implications for Leading the Modern Sales Organization.” Industrial Marketing Management 69:198–208. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2017.12.017.
- Daniel, Elizabeth, MariaLaura Di Domenico, and Daniel Nunan. 2018. “Virtual Mobility and the Lonely Cloud: Theorizing the Mobility-Isolation Paradox for Self-Employed Knowledge-Workers in the Online Home-Based Business Context: Virtual Mobility and the Lonely Cloud.” Journal of Management Studies 55 (1):174–203. doi: 10.1111/joms.12321.
- Delpechitre, Duleep, Hulda G. Black, and John Farrish. 2019. “The Dark Side of Technology: Examining the Impact of Technology Overload on Salespeople.” Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 34 (2):317–37. doi: 10.1108/JBIM-03-2017-0057.
- Dubois, Anna, and Lars-Erik Gadde. 2002. “Systematic Combining: An Abductive Approach to Case Research.” Journal of Business Research 55 (7):553–560. doi: 10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00195-8.
- Fang, Shyh-Rong, Yong-Sheng Chang, and Yan-Chiun Peng. 2011. “Dark Side of Relationships: A Tensions-Based View.” Industrial Marketing Management 40 (5):774–84. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2011.02.003.
- Fischer, Heiko, Sven Seidenstricker, and Jens Poeppelbuss. 2022. “The Triggers and Consequences of Digital Sales: A Systematic Literature Review." The Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management:1–15. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2022.2102029.
- Fraccastoro, Sara, Mika Gabrielsson, and Ellen Bolman Pullins. 2021. “The Integrated Use of Social Media, Digital, and Traditional Communication Tools in the B2B Sales Process of International SMEs.” International Business Review 30 (4):101776. doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2020.101776.
- Gohmann, Stephan F., Jian Guan, Robert M. Barker, and David J. Faulds. 2005. “Perceptions of Sales Force Automation: Differences between Sales Force and Management.” Industrial Marketing Management 34 (4):337–43. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.09.014.
- Gregory, Robert Wayne, Mark Keil, Jan Muntermann, and Magnus Mähring. 2015. “Paradoxes and the Nature of Ambidexterity in IT Transformation Programs.” Information Systems Research 26 (1):57–80. doi: 10.1287/isre.2014.0554.
- Grisé, Mary-Liz, and R. Brent Gallupe. 1999. “Information Overload: Addressing the Productivity Paradox in Face-to-Face Electronic Meetings.” Journal of Management Information Systems 16 (3):157–85. doi: 10.1080/07421222.1999.11518260.
- Guenzi, Paolo, and Johannes Habel. 2020. “Mastering the Digital Transformation of Sales.” California Management Review 62 (4):57–85. doi: 10.1177/0008125620931857.
- Guenzi, Paolo, and Edwin J. Nijssen. 2021. “The Impact of Digital Transformation on Salespeople: An Empirical Investigation Using the JD-R Model.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 41 (2):130–49. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2021.1918005.
- Halinen, Aino, and Jan-Åke Törnroos. 2005. “Using Case Methods in the Study of Contemporary Business Networks.” Journal of Business Research 58 (9):1285–1297. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2004.02.001.
- Honeycutt, Earl D., Tanya Thelen, Shawn T. Thelen, and Sharon K. Hodge. 2005. “Impediments to Sales Force Automation.” Industrial Marketing Management 34 (4):313–22. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.09.012.
- Hunter, Gary K., and William D. Perreault, Jr. 2007. “Making Sales Technology Effective.” Journal of Marketing 71 (1):16–34. doi: 10.1509/jmkg.71.1.16.
- Järvensivu, Timo, and Jan-Åke Törnroos. 2010. “Case Study Research with Moderate Constructionism: Conceptualization and practical Illustration.” Industrial Marketing Management 39 (1):100–108. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.05.005.
- Jelinek, Ronald. 2013. “All Pain, No Gain? Why Adopting Sales Force Automation Tools is Insufficient for Performance Improvement.” Business Horizons 56 (5):635–42. doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2013.06.002.
- Jridi, Kaouther, Amel Chaabouni, and Abdelfattah Triki. 2019. “Reconciliation of Deterministic and Knowledge Management Approaches for a Better Understanding of SFA’s Impact on Salespersons’ Performance: Very Informal Newsletter on Library Automation.” VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems 49 (3):353–71. doi: 10.1108/VJIKMS-11-2018-0103.
- Kohli, Rajiv, and Nigel P. Melville. 2019. “Digital Innovation: A Review and Synthesis.” Information Systems Journal 29 (1):200–23. doi: 10.1111/isj.12193.
- Kokshagina, Olga, and Sabrina Schneider. 2022. “The Digital Workplace: Navigating in a Jungle of Paradoxical Tensions.” California Management Review. doi: 10.1177/00081256221137720.
- Lin, Winston T., and Benjamin B. M. Shao. 2006. “The Business Value of Information Technology and Inputs Substitution: The Productivity Paradox Revisited.” Decision Support Systems 42 (2):493–507. doi: 10.1016/j.dss.2005.10.011.
- Lindgren, Rikard, Owen Eriksson, and Kalle Lyytinen. 2015. “Managing Identity Tensions during Mobile Ecosystem Evolution.” Journal of Information Technology 30 (3):229–44. doi: 10.1057/jit.2015.8.
- Malshe, Avinash, and Michael T. Krush. 2021. “Tensions within the Sales Ecosystem: A Multi-Level Examination of the Sales-Marketing Interface.” Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 36 (4):571–89. doi: 10.1108/JBIM-03-2020-0125.
- Matthews, Lucy, Lisa Beeler, Alex R. Zablah, and Joe F. Hair. 2018. “All Autonomy is Not Created Equal: The Countervailing Effects of Salesperson Autonomy on Burnout.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 38 (3):303–22. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2017.1398658.
- Mattila, Malla, Mika Yrjölä, and Pia Hautamäki. 2021. “Digital Transformation of Business-to-Business Sales: What Needs to Be Unlearned?” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 41 (2):113–29. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2021.1916396.
- Mazmanian, Melissa, Wanda J. Orlikowski, and JoAnne Yates. 2013. “The Autonomy Paradox: The Implications of Mobile Email Devices for Knowledge Professionals.” Organization Science (Science) 24 (5):1337–57. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1120.0806.
- Miron-Spektor, Ella, Amy Ingram, Joshua Keller, Wendy K. Smith, and Marianne W. Lewis. 2018. “Microfoundations of Organizational Paradox: The Problem is How We Think about the Problem.” Academy of Management Journal 61 (1):26–45. doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.0594.
- Moncrief, William C. 2017. “Are Sales as we Know It Dying … or Merely Transforming?” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 37 (4):271–9. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2017.1386110.
- Moncrief, William C., and Greg W. Marshall. 2005. “The Evolution of the Seven Steps of Selling.” Industrial Marketing Management 34 (1):13–22. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.06.001.
- Moncrief, William C., Greg W. Marshall, and John M. Rudd. 2015. “Social Media and Related Technology: Drivers of Change in Managing the Contemporary Sales Force.” Business Horizons 58 (1):45–55. doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2014.09.009.
- Moncrief, William C., Greg W. Marshall, and John M. Rudd. 2015. “Social media and related technology: Drivers of change in managing the contemporary sales force.” Business horizons 58 (1):45-55. doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2014.09.009.
- Moutot, Jean-Michel, and Ganaël Bascoul. 2008. “Effects of Sales Force Automation Use on Sales Force Activities and Customer Relationship Management Processes.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 28 (2):167–84. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134280205.
- Ouyang, Taohua, Xin Cao, Jun Wang, and Sixuan Zhang. 2020. “Managing Technology Innovation Paradoxes through Multi-Level Ambidexterity Capabilities.” Internet Research 30 (5):1503–20. doi: 10.1108/INTR-10-2019-0434.
- Panagopoulos, Nikolaos G., and George J. Avlonitis. 2010. “Performance Implications of Sales Strategy: The Moderating Effects of Leadership and Environment.” International Journal of Research in Marketing 27 (1):46–57. doi: 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2009.11.001.
- Pardo, Catherine, Björn Sven Ivens, and Barbara Niersbach. 2020. “An Identity Perspective of Key account Managers as Paradoxical Relationship Managers.” Industrial Marketing Management 89:355–72. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2019.10.008.
- Patton, Michael Quinn. 2015. Qualitative research & evaluation methods: integrating theory and practice: the definitive text of qualitative inquiry frameworks and options. Fourth edition. ed, Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
- Pinnington, Bruce D., Joanne Meehan, and Tom Scanlon. 2016. “A Grounded Theory of Value Dissonance in Strategic Relationships.” Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management 22 (4):278–288. doi: 10.1016/j.pursup.2016.04.005.
- Pirkkalainen, Henri, Markus Salo, Monideepa Tarafdar, and Markus Makkonen. 2019. “Deliberate or Instinctive? Proactive and Reactive Coping for Technostress.” Journal of Management Information Systems 36 (4):1179–212. doi: 10.1080/07421222.2019.1661092.
- Punj, Girish N. 2019. “Understanding Individuals’ Intentions to Limit Online Personal Information Disclosures to Protect Their Privacy: Implications for Organizations and Public Policy.” Information Technology and Management 20 (3):139–51. doi: 10.1007/s10799-018-0295-2.
- Rapp, Adam, Raj Agnihotri, and Lukas P. Forbes. 2008. “The Sales Force Technology-Performance Chain: The Role of Adaptive Selling and Effort.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 28 (4):335–50. doi: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134280401.
- Rapp, Adam, Lauren Skinner Beitelspacher, Niels Schillewaert, and Thomas L. Baker. 2012. “The Differing Effects of Technology on inside vs. outside Sales Forces to Facilitate Enhanced Customer Orientation and Interfunctional Coordination.” Journal of Business Research 65 (7):929–36. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.05.005.
- Reid, David A., Richard E. Plank, Robert M. Peterson, and Gregory A. Rich. 2017. “Examining the Use of Sales Force Management Practices.” Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 32 (7):974–86. doi: 10.1108/JBIM-02-2016-0040.
- Rodríguez, Rocio, Göran Svensson, and Erik Jens Mehl. 2020. “Digitalization Process of Complex B2B Sales Processes – Enablers and Obstacles.” Technology in Society 62:101324. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101324.
- Roman, Sergio, and Rocio Rodriguez. 2015. “The Influence of Sales Force Technology Use on Outcome Performance.” The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 30 (6):771–83. doi: 10.1108/JBIM-01-2015-0001.
- Román, Sergio, Rocío Rodríguez, and Jorge Fernando Jaramillo. 2018. “Are Mobile Devices a Blessing or a Curse? Effects of Mobile Technology Use on Salesperson Role Stress and Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 33 (5):651–64. doi: 10.1108/JBIM-05-2017-0123.
- Sharma, Arun, and Niladri Syam. 2018. “Sales and Customer Development: An Agenda for Inquiry.” Industrial Marketing Management 69:133–4. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2018.01.032.
- Singh, Jagdip, Karen Flaherty, Ravipreet S. Sohi, Dawn Deeter-Schmelz, Johannes Habel, Kenneth Le Meunier-FitzHugh, Avinash Malshe, Ryan Mullins, and Vincent Onyemah. 2019. “Sales Profession and Professionals in the Age of Digitization and Artificial Intelligence Technologies: Concepts, Priorities, and Questions.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 39 (1):2–22. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2018.1557525.
- Smith, Wendy K., and Marianne W. Lewis. 2011. “Toward a Theory of Paradox: A Dynamic Equilibrium Model of Organizing." The Academy of Management Review 36 (2):381–403. doi: 10.5465/AMR.2011.59330958.
- Syam, Niladri, and Arun Sharma. 2018. “Waiting for a Sales Renaissance in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence in Sales Research and Practice.” Industrial Marketing Management 69:135–46. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2017.12.019.
- Tanner, John F., and Shannon Shipp. 2005. “Sales Technology within the Salesperson’s Relationships: A Research Agenda.” Industrial Marketing Management 34 (4):305–12. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.09.011.
- Thaichon, Park, Jiraporn Surachartkumtonkun, Sara Quach, Scott Weaven, and Robert W. Palmatier. 2018. “Hybrid Sales Structures in the Age of e-Commerce.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 38 (3):277–302. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2018.1441718.
- Tóth, Zsófia, Linda D. Peters, Andrew Pressey, and Wesley J. Johnston. 2018. “Tension in a Value Co-creation Context: A Network Case Study.” Industrial Marketing Management 70:34–45.
- Tóth, Zsófia, Alexey Sklyar, Christian Kowalkowski, David Sörhammar, Bård Tronvoll, and Oliver Wirths. 2022. “Tensions in Digital Servitization through a Paradox Lens.” Industrial Marketing Management 102:438–450. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2022.02.010.
- Trkman, Peter. 2010. “The Critical Success Factors of Business Process Management.” International Journal of Information Management 30 (2):125–34. doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2009.07.003.
- Tumbas, Sanja, Nicholas Berente, and Jan Vom Brocke. 2018. “Digital Innovation and Institutional Entrepreneurship: Chief Digital Officer Perspectives of Their Emerging Role.” Journal of Information Technology 33 (3):188–202. doi: 10.1057/s41265-018-0055-0.
- Tura, Nina, Joona Keränen, and Samuli Patala. 2019. “The Darker Side of Sustainability: Tensions from Sustainable Business Practices in Business Networks.” Industrial Marketing Management 77:221–231. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2018.09.002.
- van Baarle, S., S. A. M. Dolmans, A. S. A. Bobelyn, and A. G. L. Romme. 2021. “Beyond Command and Control: Tensions Arising from Empowerment Initiatives.” Organization Studies 42 (4):531–53. doi: 10.1177/0170840618818600.
- Yin, Robert K. author, and Donald T. Campbell. 2018. Case study research and applications: design and methods. Edited by Donald T. writer of foreword Campbell. Sixth edition. ed. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
- Zoltners, Andris A., Prabhakant Sinha, Dharmendra Sahay, Arun Shastri, and Sally E. Lorimer. 2021. “Practical Insights for Sales Force Digitalization Success.” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 41 (2):87–102. doi: 10.1080/08853134.2021.1908144.