Exploring Africa’s Heterogenous Middle Class’ Brand Behaviour in the New Digital Age: Practical Insights From a Multiple Country Study

Abstract

The article’s purpose is to critically examine the heterogeneous middle class in Africa’s evolving relationships with brands in the new digital age environment identifying drivers for brand purchase decision-making that brand managers can adopt for their strategies. The new environment is conceptualized from the impact of digitalization and the emergence of more discerning consumers, informed and empowered in their interaction with brands. The article contributes significantly to responses to calls by international marketing scholars for further research in global brand building and management in the new digital age. Our article provides insights into how the heterogeneity of the middle class in Africa influences the consumers’ relationship with brands considering the impact of digital connectivity and nuances of each middle-class segment. We identify the core drivers for brand selection that the heterogeneous middle-class segments consider and how this influences their attitudes toward brands. The study also highlights the complexities of the relationship between the middle class and counterfeit brands. Practical and theoretical implications to provide guidelines for improving practice and research on managing brands in the new international marketing environment are presented.

Keywords:

• Heterogeneous middle class
• Africa
• digital connectivity
• brands drivers
• new normal

1. Introduction

The impact of new “trends and disruptions that are changing the landscape of marketing in an international context” is multi-faceted. It is forecasted to change how brands relate with different customer segments as part of a new customer-centric focus in a new normal environment in that marketers must be accustomed to operating. The middle class in emerging markets and, by extension, in developing countries has emerged as a key target segment for firms that are seeking new opportunities in an environment where technology has become a critical mediator between consumers and firms (Kharas 2017; Cavusgil et al. 2018; World Data Lab 2021). There is an established case for the growth and attractiveness of the middle-class segment at a global level, although the group is not one homogenous segment (Kharas and Hamel 2018; Dohrman and Fallick 2020). There is a recognition of the increasing importance of the middle class in previously under-researched contexts such as Africa (Ncube and Lufumpa 2015). Notably, the environment in Africa exhibits high levels of contextual variations in various areas. These include access to and use of technology and psychographics of consumers that are likely to influence how marketers relate and interact with these consumers in the new, highly disrupted environment (World Bank 2022a and 2022b).

This article is part of a ground-breaking study from a ten-city study of the middle class in Africa that profiles the middle class in Africa. The study’s core contribution was classifying the middle class into three discrete segments that demonstrate the importance of heterogeneity when studying the middle class. In so doing, the study advocates a case for a heterogeneous inclusive definition of African middle-class consumers. This is a departure from extant studies on the middle class that treat the segment as a homogenous entity, potentially misinterpreting implications on consumer behavior and relationships with brands in the new environment. Before this, there was a general recognition of the limited extant literature on the African middle class (Bang, Joshi, and Singh 2016; Cavusgil et al. 2018). The study suggests an African middle-class definition based on a daily household income threshold that ranges from US$10–23, based on the broader study by Chikweche, Lappeman, and Egan (2021, 2022). Three middle-income bends emerged from the study, namely, the Accomplished (US$19–23), the Comfortable (US$15–18), and the Vulnerable (US$10–14).

The granular profiling and contemporary perspective account for the changed context in Africa and create an opportunity to understand how middle-class consumers might relate with brands in the “new normal environment. The article’s purpose is to critically examine Africa’s heterogeneous middle class’ evolving relationships with brands in the new environment. The article identifies drivers for brand decision-making and the impact of the changed context framed by digitalization and changing consumer profiles that shape the “new normal” context. Brand managers can integrate these insights into their branding strategies when targeting the African middle class. In part, the article responds to calls for further research by international marketing scholars to expand crucial international marketing research areas to cover markets such as Africa instead of the Western markets-centric approach.

1.1. Re-visiting the middle-class narrative in international marketing

Marketing scholars recognize the imperative for a deeper examination of brands and branding within an international framework. This becomes particularly relevant when studying the middle class, as existing marketing research has failed to produce theories that adequately capture the nuances of this expanding demographic.

Mainstream marketing’s limited focus on framing the middle class on limited ‘theories of consumption that assume the segment to be homogenous or a representative consumer group leads to misconceptions about the segment’s potential and how brand managers can serve its needs (Cavusgil et al. 2018). While there have been some attempts to increase studies on the middle –class, these have been primarily focused on mature developed markets ignoring regions such as Africa. However, the middle class in Africa is a sizeable segment of more than 170 million consumers and is forecasted to grow (World Data Lab 2021). Hence, Chikweche, Lappeman and Egan’s (2021) study on the middle class in Africa is a crucial ground-breaking multi-country study that provides a foundation for essential reflections on brands and branding in the new normal environment. This new environment has various knowns and unknowns that might require a new mindset and rethinking of how marketers relate to the heterogeneous middle class in Africa.

2. Reflections on the new environment in Africa: What has changed?

The emergence of the global middle class, particularly in Africa, presents marketers with a compelling opportunity to study both the familiar and the unknown aspects of this segment’s interaction with brands, particularly within the evolving landscape of the “new normal.” In addition to the impact of the digital era as emphasized by Steenkamp (2020) and Sheth (2020), other contextual enhancements and shifts have reshaped the environment in which Africa’s middle class engages with brands.

As mentioned earlier, the very characterization of the middle class has changed, as evident from the heterogeneous profile of the middle class outlined by Chikweche, Lappeman, and Egan (2021, 2022). To reflect on the evolving relationship between brands and the heterogeneous middle class in Africa, it is poignant to examine what has changed in Africa that warrants this reflection.

In summary, in the last two decades, Africa has experienced improvements in various areas that impact consumers’ quality of life and consumption patterns, such as the heterogeneous middle class. The region has experienced economic growth, which has since slowed down due to ‘new economic threats, including new COVID-19 (coronavirus) variants, global inflation, supply disruptions, and climate shocks (World Bank 2022a). The war in Ukraine also affects Africa by increasing international prices of commodities, such as food staples, fertilizers, and oil and gas (World Bank 2022a). In healthcare, there has been an improvement in life-expectancy and better access to health facilities due to increased investment in the sector by governments and international partners such as the World Health Organization. There has been progress in minimizing the spread of HIV, which has been a big challenge (World Bank 2022a). The continent has a very young population, with 50% of citizens being in the 20s age group.

Extant literature illustrates the relationship between the growth of the new global middle class and social factors such as democracy, savings culture, and entrepreneurship in emerging markets (Banerjee and Duflo 2008; Kharas 2010, 2017; Kravets and Sandikci 2014). Middle-class perceptions and opinions on these issues have influenced international firms’ interests in emerging markets (Kandogan and Johnson 2016). According to the World Bank, the digital economy drives Africa’s growth and innovation. This creates employment and entrepreneurship opportunities, facilitates mobile money use, and, more importantly, connects people and markets (African Union, 2020; World Bank, 2022a, 2022b). Another critical objective of the two institutions supported by the private sector is to improve African citizens’ access to digital technologies, which will enhance the quality of their work. This development in focus on digital technologies has res-shaped how consumers interact with brands and confirms and supports calls for further research by Steenkamp (2020) on examining the role of the changed digital age on international marketing. Due to the changed environment cited earlier, changes in connectivity, entrepreneurial spirit, and more informed and empowered consumers emerging in Africa to support these calls .The heterogeneous middle class in Africa is part of this new consumer group that interacts with brands in potentially new ways that require further examination by marketers Notwithstanding the positive outlook and development outlined by the World Bank, Africa still faces developmental challenges compared to the developed mature markets, and each country is unique However, some common trends help create a narrative on the heterogeneous middle class’ relationship with brands.

2.1. Global brand building and management

Steenkamp (2020) notes the importance of the digital age in every aspect of marketing, especially branding, which can be examined from the perspective of the African middle class. The advent of global digital connectivity has resulted in increased electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) use Steenkamp (2020) defines eWOM as “the totality of these virtual communications” is commonly called electronic word of mouth (eWOM)—internet-mediated written communications (e.g. reviews, tweets, blog posts, likes, pins, images, video testimonials) between current or potential consumers (p. 8) internet-mediated communication.

Globally, consumers exchange brand information, opinions, and experiences using social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and WhatsApp (Liu, Steenkamp, and Zhang 2018). Increased digital connectivity has seen consumers increase levels of direct communication to share information on brands in a multilogue manner. Online platforms have become a critical conduit consumers use to post, share and seek others’ opinions on brands Consumer–brand relationships have moved to online platforms where consumers continuously post, share, and seek others’ views, thereby shaping customer-brand.

The heterogeneity of the segment in Africa poses potential challenges for a ‘new mindset and rethinking of how marketers can use effective branding strategies premised on the evolving behavior of the segment to engage the segment. In particular, the increasing rates of digital connectivity facilitated by the growing use of mobile telephony in Africa creates a solid foundation for reflecting on several critical questions about the heterogeneous middle class’s relationship with brands. What lessons can be drawn from our understanding of the heterogeneous middle-class in Africa, given Steenkamp’s review of the new digital age he raises and uses this understanding to review their relationships with brands. How does this characterization or knowledge of the middle class frame our thinking or knowledge of how marketers interact with these brands in the context of the new normal environment. The reflection is framed by the digital age and other contextual developments that have shaped a new, changed environment in which middle–class and marketers relate and interact For example, the changing consumer profile is in the backdrop of this digital age, where consumers are now empowered, more discerning, and digitally connected. This new profile affects how these consumers are likely to interact with international marketing.

3. Literature review

In examining the emerging relationships between the heterogeneous middle class and brands in an evolving environment, it is important to re-visit the very tenets of importance and variables of branding in contexts such as international ones considering its growing influence. The advent of increasing globalization influenced marketers to consider the immediate threats and opportunities that came with globalization Burgess and Steenkamp (2006) extensively cover these threats and opportunities in emerging markets. However, there needs to be more research attention on branding in an international context. Brexit and Covid-induced national isolation experiences have raised questions about the continued narrative of the importance of globalization in international marketing (Steenkamp 2019). Brexit signaled the nation-state surge and national sovereignty reinstatement, thereby rejecting the long-held and dominant neo-liberal focus and vision of globalization (Wang 2017).

The Covid pandemic continues to impact global supply chains and to change consumer shopping behavior, especially online shopping adoption (Ahmadi et al. 2022; Wood 2022). Notwithstanding the pressure, these events have put on the acceleration of globalization versus the importance of insular states, international firms continue to invest in building brands that can serve new discerning consumers either as global or adapted brands. The changing context of the environment post-Covid has brought about a different ‘new usual way of life which requires marketers to understand better how consumers, such as the middle class, make choices about brands (Özsomer et al. 2012; Allman et al. 2016). Hence, the need for continued examination of the nature of relationships between the brands and consumers, such as the heterogeneous middle class in Africa.

3.1. The local versus foreign brand dilemma

Traditionally, globalization accelerated the consumption of global brands and increased the competitiveness of local brands anchored on advantages such as local cultural relevance, heritage, and originality (Kipnis, Broderick, and Demangeot 2013; Strizhakova and Coulter 2015). The local versus foreign inquisition is still relevant in the current context of the new normal, where consumers have many options of brands to choose from across various product categories (Liu et al. 2021). This context is also crucial from the perspective of consumers making decisions on local versus foreign brands in an environment with many social media-driven communication alternatives (Sheth 2020).

Extant literature on local vs. foreign brands is steeped predominantly in emerging markets where local brands are associated with inferior product quality. In contrast, foreign brands have a high premium quality perception (Alden, Steenkamp, and Batra 1999). The selection of foreign and domestic brands depends on “context, consumer characteristics, and brand attributes” (Eren-Erdoğmuş and Dirsehan 2017; Srivastava and Balaji 2018). Extant literature notes that local brand preference dominates food and drink categories due to alignment with local tastes. In contrast, foreign brands dominate aspirational product categories such as electronic products (Özsomer et al. 2012; Sharma, Kumar, and Borah 2017). Nevertheless, whether these findings remain relevant in the ‘new normal ‘environment that groups such as the heterogeneous African middle-class interact with brands remain to be examined.

3.2. Is country of origin still a factor?

The concept of country of origin (COO) has been a critical part of extant research in branding studies (Herz and Diamantopoulos 2013a, 2013b). By its nature, COO can be conceptualized in various ways, namely, into a country of brand origin, country of design, and country of parts (Allman et al. 2016). It is important to note that two emerging strands of COO research exist one that continues to support and advocate for the COO’s important role in international marketing (Gürhan-Canli et al. 2018) and a second one that questions the COO’s relevance in the new environment (Herz and Diamantopoulos 2017). Critics of the concept question its importance and relevance due to the rise of nation-state sovereignty and nationalism, the impact of global production, global branding, and the declining influence of the World Trade Organization’s origin labeling rules.

Advocates of COO remind marketers of the COO’s influence on consumers’ attitudes, intentions, purchase likelihoods and willingness to pay in the global era’ (Herz and Diamantopoulos 2017). Other studies have demonstrated that consumers sometimes need to learn the correct COO of a product and categorize some brands into the wrong COO (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos 2011). Although COO research appears to be at some form of cross-roads regarding its relevance and influence as a driver for consumer purchase, some studies reinforce COO’s effects as a cue of consumers’ perceptions and behavior (Hertz and Diamantopoulos 2017; Srivastava and Balaji 2018; Lee 2020). This notion even places more urgency and importance on establishing the nature of relationships between the heterogeneous middle class in Africa and brands considering the assumed presence of foreign brands in African markets across different product categories.

4. Methodology

The study was exploratory, using quantitative and qualitative questionnaires, personal interviews and ethnographic observations to collect data from ten cities in nine African countries. This project was part of an extensive project to re-visit the conceptualization of the middle class in Africa, investigating potential heterogeneity. The focus on urban areas is in line with recommendations from extant literature on middle-class studies, such as Cavusgil et al. (2018). They argue that there are high concentrations of potential middle-class samples in urban areas.

4.1. Sampling design and data collection

The selection of participating cities was informed by submissions from a panel of marketing experts with experience operating in African countries and whose current firms were operating in Africa. The final list of participating cities comprised the following cities Accra, Ghana; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Douala, Cameroon; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Abidjan, Ivory Coast; Kano and Lagos, Nigeria; Luanda, Angola; Lusaka, Zambia; and Nairobi, Kenya. The sample’s cities cover significant sub-Saharan African regions (southern, east, west, and central) A team of 150 research assistants was used to collect data in line with ethics protocols.

4.1.1. Participant recruitment and sampling strategy

Participants were recruited from the ten cities using an initial stratification and sampling sites drawn from maps illustrating urban residences in wards, suburbs, or administrative blocks. Our sampling technique employed random-block probability sampling, with houses chosen through a random-walk method. The final step in respondent selection relied on a filtering question in the questionnaire, determining eligibility based on household daily income ($10–$23). This methodology is consistent with previous studies focusing on estimating household incomes.

4.1.2. Data collection procedure

4.1.2.1. Questionnaire design

A team of field research assistants working under the supervision of city-based supervisors personally administered a questionnaire that combined quantitative and qualitative questions. The focus of the questions was on establishing what influenced their choice of channel of distribution, regularity of shopping, perceptions of the channels and barriers to accessing the channels. The questionnaire was in English and French although the field workers administering the questionnaire were required to be fluent in the local dialects. Participants had the option to use their local dialects or English since the research assistants collecting the data were required to be fluent in the local languages of the cities under study (Oyeyemi et al. 2016). Core questions of the questionnaire had sections of translation of common local dialects spoken across the ten cities like Swahili. A total of 8,110 participants were approached, of which 4,860 were clustered into the three middle-class segments. Mobile devices were used to administer questionnaires, and interviews.

4.1.2.2. Translation procedure

Data collection was jointly managed with a research firm that had offices in the cities under study and a key requirement for the supervising team was experience in conducting previous cross-cultural research and familiarity with transcription and translation procedures. Due to the nature and structure of questions that were being asked there were limited possibilities of the need for complex oblique translation procedures. Hence, the translation strategy was pre-dominantly direct translation. However, to improve methodological soundness, translation was done by two supervisors per each city including a semi-translator reliability rating process between the two supervisors. On average there was an 92% translation agreement for the supervisors. This was then verified by the research firm’s internal translation experts who independently verified the translation transcripts.

4.2. Data analysis

The quantitative data were cleaned and coded using SPSS software and a k-means clustering procedure to identify the emerging income threshold segments in line with the approach used in other heterogeneous segmentation studies (Wolf et al. 2020). The appropriate number of clusters was determined through a two-stage clustering approach, followed by k-means cluster analysis to categorize the data into distinct income groups within the $10–$23 range. Discriminant analysis was then applied to validate the group membership outcomes of the k-means clustering process. This aided in finalizing the clustering procedure by categorizing each resulting cluster based on the prevalent daily income thresholds of $10–14, $15–18, and $19–23.

Three core segments of the middle class emerged from the clustering whose descriptions reflected the combined overall economic and social position of the segments as differentiators from each other. For example, the Accomplished middle-class group was made up of consumers who survive on a daily income of $19–$23 and whose income is predominantly from formal employment. The second group was the Comfortable group who had a daily income range of $15–$18 and whose income source are largely from formal employment in areas such as the public service which allowed them a relatively comfortable lifestyle. The vulnerable segment was the smallest segment with a daily income range of $10–$14 largely drawn from self-employment. This group was more likely to be vulnerable to income shocks that could result in them not being able to meet basic needs in line with the expenses used to frame the household needs of middle-class groups.

The qualitative data analysis involved translating local transcripts into English NVIVO software was then used to code the data, followed by thematic analysis. This was supported by data narrative structuring focused on crafting a coherent structure and storyline for the data, exploring new potential meanings. Interpretation involved re-contextualizing statements within a broader frame of reference, such as existing literature. Prolonged field engagement and ethnographic observations of participants in the real-world reinforced the methodological soundness, trustworthiness and validity of the data.

The article reflects on the possible emerging relationships between brands and the African middle class in the new digitally driven age addressing the following questions:

• What core expectations do the heterogeneous middle –class in Africa have from brands, what motivates these consumers to buy branded products, and what are their perceptions of the local versus foreign brands dilemma? How can this influence their relationship with brands in the new normal environment?

• What has been the influence of digital connectivity (through digital platforms and digital opinion leaders) on the heterogeneous middle-class consumers’ relationship with brands, and how can this be useful in reshaping brand managers’ strategies for engaging this segment in the new normal environment Are there distinctions between foreign-global and local brands in terms of their presence in the digital environment and interaction with the heterogeneous middle class?

5. Conceptual framework

Figure 1 is a helpful conceptual framework in reflecting the core expectations of the heterogeneous middle class in their relationship with brands, reflected in the new everyday context faced by marketers.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

The framework is centered on identifying the core brand expectations the heterogeneous middle class in Africa has. In other words, what drives their decision–making in their relationship with brands in the new normal digitally driven environment is made up of a more informed and empowered consumer.

6. Toward a new balanced understanding of the heterogeneous middle-class in Africa’s relationship with brands in the new environment

6.1. Findings and discussion

6.1.1. Digital connectivity and access to multimedia channels

It is essential to note the impact of digital connectivity as reflected by the heterogeneous African middle class’s multiple uses of digital platforms. The heterogeneous middle class in Africa accesses various media and digital platforms for different purposes. The high mobile penetration of more than 400 million in 2020 (World Bank 2022b) indicates the significant reliance of all three segments on mobile phones. The proliferation of radio exists across all segments, but a notable shift has occurred with more people using mobile phones to access the radio digitally. Figure 2 outlines the core media regularly used by the heterogeneous middle class, including digital platforms.

Figure 2. Media and digital platforms usage.

While above-line media is still used, there is evidence of the widespread use of new forms of media on digital platforms such as FaceBook, Twitter, and WhatsApp by all three segments. The impact on branding relationships specific to digital platforms is discussed in the section of the core expectations outlined below.

6.1.2. Brand or no-brand question

An essential starting point for examining the relationship between the heterogeneous African middle class and brands would be to re-visit established perceptions on whether these consumers place a premium on purchasing brands. Within the three distinct segments, disparities emerge regarding the emphasis placed on brand appeal. Notably, the Accomplished segment prioritizes the importance of brands as the second most significant factor, while the Comfortable segment ranks it third, and the Vulnerable segment positions it fourth in terms of importance. (Chikweche et al. 2021).

Accomplished Nairobi-31" I prefer buying established brands where possible because they have a history of good performance".

Comfortable Accra 345 "Given a choice I would rather buy branded products than non-branded ones because there is some guarantee of quality and durability".

Vulnerable Lusaka 88 "My limited income prevents me from always buying brands, but this would be my preference if circumstances changed".

The significance of brand consumption has long been a focal point in marketing research, as highlighted by Steenkamp and Burgess (2002). However, its relevance warrants renewed scrutiny in other non-western markets contexts, such as within the diverse African middle class, which is characterized by evolving consumer profiles, behaviors, and digital connectivity in a shifting landscape.

To expand knowledge building beyond the simplistic analysis of the middle class’ preference of brands versus non-brands, it is crucial to examine the core considerations and attitudes these three segments have toward brands considering the new variables shaping the new normal environment.

6.2. The core drivers for brand selection and attitudes toward brands

6.2.1. Domestic vs. International brand choice

Beyond the brand or non-brand discussion, there is a need to review the status of preference of local versus foreign brands, including global ones. For decades, extensive literature has examined this dilemma mostly from an emerging market perspective and the broad global branding perspective, with mixed findings (Batra et al. 2000; Kumar and Steenkamp 2013; Steenkamp 2017). This issue remains vital in the new normal environment where Steenkamp (2020) has advocated for rethinking how the digital age environment has changed the lens of consumers’ access to foreign brands, including global brands using digital platforms. Within the diverse African middle class, a clear distinction was observed in preferences between foreign and local brands across all three segments. These preference patterns were discernible across various product categories and were influenced by the origin country of foreign brands. Notably, emerging categories exhibiting such distinctions include technology, personal care products, motor vehicles, and clothing.

The Accomplished group generally preferred foreign and global brands for essential household products such as electronic products and, to some extent, clothing.

Accomplished Luanda 643" I generally buy big international established brands, especially when buying durable home products.

Preference for this group was for established global brands such as Samsung, LG, Apple, Philips, and Toshiba for technology; Nivea, Lux, Dove, and Revlon for personal care; Vaseline, Nike, Adidas, Puma, and CAT for clothing and Toyota and Mazda for cars Interestingly, some luxury brands like Michael Kors, Zara, Chloe, Victoria’s Secret, and Jordan in cities like Doula, Abidjan, Accra, Lagos, and Luanda were identified by the Accomplished. The segment had a low uptake of global brands from other emerging markets, such as Chinese brands as Huawei, OnePlus, and ZTE.

The Comfortable also preferred foreign and global brands. However, they were more likely to use what they perceived as the more affordable brands, such as Huawei, OnePlus, and emerging regional brands.

Comfortable 134 “The increase in the number of new foreign brands, such as Huawei from China, has allowed me to buy more foreign brands, which are my preferred choice, although I still cannot afford others like iPhone.”

For the Vulnerable, the preference for foreign and global brands was more aspirational than reality because they could not afford them. This group’s consumption of foreign and international brands was likely more through counterfeit brands found in Lagos, Nairobi, and Dar es salaam street markets. This will be addressed in a separate section to reflect on Steenkamp’s challenge for a better understanding of consumers’ interaction with counterfeit brands.

Vulnerable Addis Ababa 231" I wish I could afford some big international brands because I hear they are better quality, but my current limited income makes this problematic.

The diverse relationships that the three segments maintain with local, foreign, and global brands remain a crucial aspect in the present landscape, characterized by digitalization. This digital transformation has facilitated greater awareness of foreign and international brands, along with improved accessibility to these brands to some extent. The newly interconnected digital environment empowers the African middle class to share information regarding brand developments, including the availability of brands. In the case of the Accomplished segment, there’s a notable trend of sharing news on global brands, underscoring the importance of research on electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) as advocated by Steenkamp (2020).

The influence of digital connectivity among the Accomplished is further amplified by their access to satellite or cable television, where direct marketing channels promote global brands. Figure 3 shows the various pay television options available at different rates and services, from essential limited-channel services to complete multiple-channel networks such as DSTV Multichoice.

Figure 3. Accomplished subscription pay TV options.

DSTV Multichoice DSTV, a South African network, is the dominant network in all countries and has dedicated products targeting the middle class, reinforcing the importance of digital connectivity. For the Comfortable and Vulnerable, high access to mobile telephony enables them to share information on local and foreign brands on their various social media platforms.

Comfortable 136 Dar es Salaam "I use my mobile phone to access the internet regularly. I see new products being introduced, and then I share this information on my Facebook and Instagram with friends. I also follow what my friends post on their social media platforms on new products.:

This is forecasted to continue and grow with the accelerated penetration of mobile telephony. In some cases, Vulnerable and Comfortable consumers owned multiple mobile phones since these were also used for business by self-employed entrepreneurs. This supports some findings by others, such as Odoom (2016). For categories such as alcohol, there are fascinating insights. In all three segments, local beer brands were viewed as national pride in most markets due to the investment in the communication of these brands. International brands such as whiskey are more of aspirational brands (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Alcohol brands patterns.

For example, prominent local brands such as Mosi in Zambia, Cuca in Algeria, Harar in Ethiopia, and Tusker in Kenya Beer is an equalizer for the Accomplished segment who might need more affordable international whiskey synonymously associated with international brands.

Accomplished Nairobi 246’ "Tusker is a good quality local beer; I drink this regularly because foreign beers like Heineken are too expensive, yet I get the same pleasure from drinking our local Tusker!

Similar strengths of local brands such as Dangote are evident in staple foods like rice and flour, especially for the Comfortable and Vulnerable groups.

Vulnerable Kano 86" I am happy with the Dangote products for our staples such as rice and flour; although they are local brands, their quality is good, and they are fresh."

6.2.2. Brand familiarity and popularity

The heterogeneous African middle-class segments valued familiarity and established perceptions as core considerations that shaped their attitudes toward brands. This is a vital consideration shaped by the new normal’s variables. Familiarity and popularity were shaped by different experiences across the three different segments. These experiences can be related to some of the new normal context drivers, such as the digital age. In the Accomplished case, familiarity and perception were influenced by the origin and heritage associated with the brand, especially for the foreign and global brands, given their long association with brands.

Accomplished Abidjan 361," I am very comfortable with the traditional established French brands that we are accustomed to and have been using across generations in some cases."

Accomplished Accra 163 "I drink Nido since my childhood."

Under their better financial situation and access to brand information, this group had established a history with global brands across different product categories. These brands have a defined history and association with this group. They have continued to re-invent themselves in the new normal context where emerging global brands are emerging as alternatives for consumers.

The Comfortable group exhibited similar traits around valuing the origins and historical association with brands However, this was to a limited pool of brands given their limited exposure to a broader pool of brands compared to the Accomplished. Familiarity was essential for the Vulnerable group because decisions to purchase a branded product had significant implications given the often higher costs of these products compared to unbranded products. Thus the group needed the privilege of a trial-and-error purchase of a brand they were unfamiliar with and which was not popular in their circles. Hence the origin and history of the brand assumed a significant consideration for this group, some of whom indicated using the same brands across different generations. For example, in product categories such as home cleaning products, the preference was for established old brands such as Dettol, Jik, and Harpic from global players like Reckitt Benckiser. The track records of these products had become an indicator of quality cues for the brands.

Vulnerable Doula 35 "When buying branded products for my household cleaning, I would rather stick to established brands like Dettol that I know have been around for a long time and are known for their superior performance even though I will be stretching my budget by buying them."

However, awareness of brands in the new digital age-dominated context is now privy to more than one particular segment but all the segments. This development is facilitated by easy access to the internet and other digital platforms, which is essential in today’s digital age-dominated context. In all three groups, eWOM and the rise of digital opinion leaders was a critical emerging development that continues to be relevant to the ‘new normal environment.

All three groups had defined social media groups using Instagram, WhatsApp, YouTube, and mainly FaceBook to share brand information. Digital opinion leaders were also crucial in promoting local brands with the advent of brand ambassadorial roles that local firms used to promote their brands on digital platforms. This process also involved appointing digital opinion leaders as brand ambassadors drawing on their influence in the three middle-class groups’ respective social network groups. Brand managers have to consider the changed profile of consumers in the new normal context where we have established that consumers are now more informed, more discerning, and empowered to make informed decisions about brands which shape the relationship between firms and consumers differently. They have to think beyond just leveraging established positive perceptions and attitudes that have been the basis for the familiarity and popularity of brands. Extant literature focuses on the importance of brand origin as a cue for shaping the familiarity of brands.

6.2.3. Brand relevance

The three heterogeneous African middle-class groups inevitably had different overarching drivers for purchasing products. As indicated earlier, branding importance was ranked differently, but it was part of the portfolio of drivers for purchase. An essential factor concerning brands, evident across all three segments, was the level or nature of relevance they held for consumers. Relevance is gauged by factors such as ease of use, the level of investment required to adapt the brand to local conditions, and the brand’s overall impact on social standing and acceptance within social circles. These components varied in significance across the three middle-class groups. The concept of brand relevance is not commonly addressed in existing literature. However, its importance in understanding consumer-brand interactions in the evolving ‘new normal’ environment is underscored, particularly in relation to the discourse on preferences between local, foreign, and global brands.

For the Vulnerable group, there was a general perception or misconception about foreign brands being complicated and, in some cases, needing to be more relevant to their needs. The Comfortable and Accomplished groups that purchased high-end smartphones, such as Apple iPhone, were concerned about the incompatibility with local networks, which resulted in them needing help to use all the features on their products.

Accomplished Kano 68" I have not been able to use all the features on my iPhone because my mobile network does not support some of these features, which is frustrating since I paid a lot of money for the phone."

The same applies to electrical household products, especially those that have yet to establish global brands. This challenge was partly addressed through participation in digital communities on social media, where information was readily available on which brands to avoid because of adaptation challenges. All three groups acknowledged the role of eWOM and digital opinion leaders in their social networks in providing information and promoting brands relevant to the respective middle-class groups.

Comfortable Lagos 234 "I follow the LagosCelebs pages on both Facebook and Instagram to get the latest information on fashion and international brands from socialites on these platforms."

Digital opinion leaders have played a pivotal role in advocating for greater adaptation of foreign and global brands to cater to the nuances and context of local consumers. For instance, discussions often revolve around ensuring smartphone applications and features align with the preferences of middle-class consumers, allowing them to fully utilize the capabilities of their devices. Brands that actively embrace this integration are perceived positively, as they demonstrate a commitment to meeting the needs of local consumers, thereby fostering stronger brand loyalty.

Comfortable Lusaka 186" I like brands that make an effort to think about our different needs and circumstances when they make their products so that we can enjoy the full benefits of these products."

This context created opportunities for brand managers to consider partnerships for co-branding with local players with the advantage of local know-how.

6.2.4. Brand performance and resilience

The purchase of branded products by the diverse African middle class is widely perceived as a decision requiring significant investment of time, resources, and emotional attachment. Consequently, there exists a confident expectation regarding the performance and durability of these brands. The brands exhibit resilience against various contextual challenges encountered during the purchase and consumption process. This dimension, often overlooked in existing literature, holds relevance in reshaping marketers’ perceptions of brand relationships. The combination of performance and resilience captures the brand’s ability to endure and deliver sustained satisfaction at optimal levels, meeting consumers’ expectations effectively.

There were variations in the importance of these combined factors across the three groups depending on the product category Accomplished performance and resilience were the primary reasons for purchasing foreign and global brands.

Accomplished Luanda 234" The very reason we buy foreign brands is the guaranteed superior performance and durability."

There was a prevailing perception that foreign and global brands boasted superior quality and longevity compared to non-branded or local products. These brands were expected to deliver high-performance standards consistent with their global reputation. This perception was particularly prominent in household electronic products and other high-value items like smartphones. While both the Vulnerable and Comfortable segments shared similar views, this sentiment extended even to basic product categories such as personal health products like washing soap. Global brands like Surf and Vaseline were esteemed for their extended durability and assurance of superior cleaning performance compared to their local counterparts.

The influence of the new digital age-driven context is evident from the impact of eWOM and opinion leaders who promoted various brands’ resilience and performance through innovative experiential marketing activities facilitated by improved digital connectivity. These included creative online brand promotion activities such as drama skits popularizing brands by famous digital opinion leaders in various cities, predominantly Accra, Ghana; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Lagos, Nigeria. These were integrated into the popular entertainment activities of popular local music genres that were popular among the middle class.

6.2.5. Counterfeit brand crisis

Brand managers need to understand consumers’ behavior and attitudes toward counterfeit brands. The discourse on local versus foreign brands reveals elements of the Vulnerable group’s inclination toward counterfeit brands due to affordability and their aspirations to access branded products.

This approach remains a crucial issue in the new normal digital age-driven environment where consumers have access to information about various brands and potential alternative access channels, creating opportunities for the proliferation of counterfeit brands. There is a need to examine critical issues such as why some people knowingly purchase counterfeits, what the impact of counterfeits is on affected brands, and understand how firms can counter this threat. In the case of the heterogeneous African middle class, the Vulnerable and Comfortable groups indicated higher purchase rates of counterfeit products with variations across product categories. For the Vulnerable, the high costs of authentic brands were a deterrent to accessing them, hence their decisions to buy counterfeit products from informal channels and traders who brought these products from China.

Vulnerable Lagos 129" I buy the ‘fake’ brands from the market which are brought from China because that is all that I can afford, and they still look the same as the ones sold in the shops."

Counterfeit products were purchased across all product categories but mostly clothes since they could not still afford counterfeit electronic products. The group still perceived counterfeit global brands to be of superior quality to local brands with a better esthetic look. From their perspective, buying these products fulfilled an aspirational consumption of branded products, a general trend among their peers, even though they knew these brands were counterfeit.

For the Comfortable, resorting to counterfeit brands was also influenced by the high costs of authentic brands. However, they mainly bought counterfeit clothing brands and still placed a quality premium on other products, such as household products.

Comfortable Doula 234" To be honest, I have bought a number of the fake brands for clothes and shoes because of the price, and they really looked the same as the real ones!I try not to do so for household goods like electrical products, I save money to buy my preferred genuine brands."

Extant literature reinforces the importance of brand origin, given its impact on how consumers often develop stereotypical beliefs about countries of origin, influencing consumers’ attitudes toward the brand (Lee 2020). This was evident in the negative perception the heterogeneous middle class in Africa had toward Chinese products because of their association of these products with counterfeits.

Accomplished Nairobi 87 "There are a lot of fake brands coming from China that are sold at the markets, and this has made me not trust Chinese brands although I am told there are some that good like Huawei."

However, this is not necessarily reflective of the reality of Chinese brands because some of the fastest-growing and most prominent brands are Chinese. For example, Haier and Huawei are now leading global brands that could penetrate these same segments with a misplaced perception of these brands. These brands’ developments have been covered in extant literature (Steenkamp 2013).

For the Accomplished, there was face-value dismissal of counterfeit products based on the image this would portray to their peers in their social groups who took pride in busying with authentic brands. However, given the proliferation of counterfeit brands and indiscipline by some retail channels that also stocked these brands and passed them on as authentic brands, members of the group raised concerns and doubts about whether they always paid for authentic brands.

Accomplished Luand453 "At times zi wonder whether the brands that we are buying from the shops are genuine because you see the same brands being sold on the streets for far much less than what we are paying for in the shops."

Is the relationship of the heterogeneous middle class in Africa likely to change in the new digital age and consumer-empowered environment? This area will require regular research because of the likelihood of socially acceptable responses to the issues by respondents who are aware of the image and perceptions associated with counterfeit brands.

Moreover, the digital age has even made it easier for consumers to access information about the availability of counterfeit brands through eWOM and share information on social media, which could promote further consumption of these products. The fascinating insight is the rise of digital opinion leaders, especially among the Comfortable and Vulnerable, who specifically specialized in information provision on counterfeit brands related brands.

This extends to concerns such as the accessibility of products and services for unlocking smartphones purchased from the counterfeit market. The fluidity of travel between countries has enabled individual traders to journey between China and Africa to procure both authentic and counterfeit brands. Consequently, this enhances access for a knowledgeable and empowered middle-class segment aspiring to incorporate these products into their social acceptance journey within their social circles.

7. Implications for practice and research

Findings from the study provide important insights that brand managers can integrate into their strategies when engaging the growing African middle class.

7.1. Leveraging eWOM

The research offers valuable insights into the diverse African middle class, which actively employs electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) for information exchange, influencing brand purchase decisions. A key takeaway from this observation is the necessity for brand managers to avoid a uniform approach to harnessing eWOM. The distinct ways in which different segments utilize eWOM, as demonstrated by the three middle-class segments, underscore

The role of digital opinion leaders, also raised by Steenkamp (2020), is also confirmed in this study, where the leaders play a significant formal role in influencing consumers in the Comfortable and Vulnerable segments. A one size fits all approach by brand managers of using digital opinion leaders would not work, as evident from the case where there is a higher level of involvement of these leaders when they are appointed as brand ambassadors to serve the Vulnerable segment. Experiential and context-relevant digital campaigns are effective in establishing relationships with the African middle class. Examples include using digital opinion leaders in locally produced drama skits that feature on social media.

7.2. Embracing heterogeneity of segment

Extant literature has often focused on examining the question of brand appeal among consumers in less developed markets such as Africa using a homogenous approach. However, our paper demonstrates the importance of acknowledging potential heterogeneous differences among groups such as the middle class, where brand appeal importance assumes different priority levels. Brand managers need to recognize the changing nature of the profile of consumers, which indicates that they are now more discerning, have access to global information, and are empowered to make choices in ways that are different from the non-digital-driven environment. The success of local brands, as demonstrated in the alcohol sector, provides insights on how marketers can draw lessons and insights that can be useful in re-imagining strategies for promoting brands in the new normal.

7.3. Branding innovations and aspirational behaviour

Brand managers need to reinforce the importance of understanding the importance the heterogeneous African middle class placed on brand purchase decision-making. Findings indicate the importance of investment in time, resources, and emotional considerations in decision-making. Therefore, brand managers should actively design new product development and brand management processes responsive to this investment. Further branding innovations could be co-branding and co-creating products that involve middle-class consumers. A key aspect of branding innovations is the need to understand and embed new real-life experiences in marketing communications. Brand managers should learn the appropriate language to use to attract consumers. Lessons could be learnt from brands that have adapted their features to mitigate the contextual challenges in the environment of purchase and consumption. This is important in reinforcing brands’ performance and resilience.

7.4. The counterfeit dilemma

Our paper raises important insights into counterfeit brands An important insight that emerges is the role of digital connectivity in facilitating knowledge and consumption of counterfeit brands by the African middle class. The Vulnerable and Comfortable consumers relied on digital platforms and digital opinion leaders to gather information on counterfeit brands and, in some cases, where to buy these products. This raises critical issues regarding the role of social media platforms in policing potentially ‘harmful, illegal activities such as the case of counterfeit brands. This is an area where global brands could actively join to lobby these platforms to integrate algorithms that might assist in managing this proliferation. Another practical implication is the need for firms to engage and educate retailers on the importance of stocking authentic brands, as evident from cases of retailers in Africa who stock counterfeit brands. On the other hand, digital connectivity can strengthen policing systems that are in place, together with education and awareness programs targeting consumers.

Our experience demonstrated the challenges of getting socially desirable responses when dealing with the issue of counterfeit because consumers are aware of the illegality of buying these products. Therefore, consumers could have provided more insights into their motivations to use them beyond what has been covered in the paper. The paper raises challenges for Chinese global brands like Hauwei and Haier to manage the misconceptions about Chinese brands due to the misconstrued COO associated with China. These brands have become leading international brands found in households across the globe but are prejudiced by the misconceptions such as those demonstrated by the heterogeneous middle class in Africa.

8. Future research direction

The “new normal environment” framed around a digital age will continue to evolve with new technological developments. With this development, marketers will need to continue researching critical issues in branding. This includes continuous research on the impact of digital connectivity on consumers" relationships with marketing. Within the context of the middle-class in Africa, further research could be undertaken to expand to other African countries with substantial middle-class segments, such as Algeria, Egypt, South Africa, and Tunisia. This expanded research could cover calls for research on such topics as counterfeit brands and the role of the sharing economy raised by Steenkamp.

Disclosure statement

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.