The interplay of multicultural and career identity development

Abstract

Career identity development, involving exploration and commitment, is a lifelong process by an individual that is fundamental to shaping one’s career. Although prior research has investigated what may lead one to develop a strong and clear career identity, there is limited understanding of the cultural influences on career identity development relevant to multicultural individuals. Integrating the identity status paradigm with a narrative identity perspective, we propose that career identity development interplays with multicultural identity development. We explore this interplay through in-depth interviews with Chinese-ethnic multicultural individuals. From the interviews, we elucidate a typology (Multicultural-Career Identity Interplay, ‘MCII’) to explain how multicultural identity and career identity development are interrelated in systematic ways (Commanding, Cruising, and Contending), and introduce a dual-dimensional, relational-oriented framework of career paths. We explain how each MCII pattern corresponds to individual career paths and is associated with immigration age. Our study extends career identity development theory into the cultural identity domain, providing a more nuanced understanding of the dynamic and culturally influenced career development of multicultural individuals. The findings can help individuals and career counsellors better understand and support the career identity development of individuals who identify with more than one culture.

Keywords:

• Career identity
• multicultural
• identity development
• narrative
• interview

Introduction

The development of a career identity, an individual’s sense of who they are with respect to their careers, is a lifelong process central to major career development theories (Erikson, 1968; Flum & Blustein, 2000; Meijers, 1998; Vondracek et al., 1986). Career identity development—comprising the processes of exploration and commitment—can shape not only vocational behavior but also wider outcomes such as psychosocial functioning (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011). Thus, it is important to understand which factors support the development of a clear and strong career identity. Prior research has investigated individual and contextual influences on career identity development, including work and non-work activities and experiences, gender, personality, and family and peer influence (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011).

However, there have been calls to better understand the cultural aspects that influence the development of career identity (Modestino et al., 2019; Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011). Despite existing research on how culture shapes career choice and interests (Leong & Chou, 1994), there remains a scarcity of research into the connections between multicultural identity and career identity development. With the prevalence of extended and profound exposure to diverse cultures, whether through migration or upbringing, an increasing portion of the workforce embodies a multicultural identity, denoting a sense of belonging to more than one culture (Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2010). In light of the link between career identity development and identity formation in other domains (Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998), coupled with the core role of cultural identity in shaping one’s self-concept and values (Phinney & Ong, 2007), the absence of theoretical frameworks elucidating how multicultural identity influences career identity leaves a serious gap in our understanding of how a substantial portion of the workforce forges its career identity.

The aim of this paper is to offer a theoretically grounded qualitative exploration of the interplay between career identity development and multicultural identity development, providing novel insights into the careers of multicultural individuals. We conducted 26 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with early- to mid-career workers (mostly young professionals) from Chinese ethnic background raised in Western countries. We contribute to the literature a typology of patterns of interplay between individuals’ career identity and multicultural identity development, drawing on integrated insights from the identity status (Marcia, 1966) and narrative identity (McAdams, 2011) perspectives. Another key contribution is to move beyond the focus on individual agency in the careers literature and take a more relational angle by introducing a framework of career paths that acknowledges the complex interaction between cultural background, family expectations and individual aspirations. The findings from this study are important for extending theorizing on career identity development to the domain of cultural identity, with practical implications for multicultural individuals, career counsellors, and culturally diverse representation in society more broadly.

Exploring career identity and multicultural identity development

The identity status paradigm

The framework of our study is underpinned by Marcia’s (1966) well-established identity status paradigm, which contains key concepts related to identity development processes and statuses. According to the identity status model, the two primary identity development processes are exploration and commitment, and individuals vary in the degree to which they are engaged in these processes throughout their lives. Typically, in adolescence, individuals go through a process of exploration, which involves the ‘active questioning and weighing of various identity alternatives before making decisions about the values, beliefs and goals to pursue’ (Crocetti et al., 2008, p. 208). Hence, exploration can entail identity struggle, and for some individuals, this process may continue into adulthood (Phinney, 2013). Identity exploration is a necessary step to reaching commitment, which involves ‘making a relatively firm choice about an identity domain and engaging in significant activities geared toward the implementation of that choice’ (Crocetti et al., 2008, p. 208).

The processes of exploration and commitment combine to produce an individual’s identity status at a point in time, from least advanced to most advanced: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, or achievement (Meeus et al., 1999). Although there is no set pathway or timeframes in any given individuals’ identity status progression, individuals typically start with a diffusion status, in which there is little or no exploration of one’s identity, and no clear understanding of the issues involved (i.e. low exploration, low commitment). From there, individuals may simply acquire ‘without question the values and attitudes to which they have been exposed’ (Phinney, 1989, p. 36), asserting apparent clarity about their identity (i.e. low exploration, high commitment)—this is a foreclosure status. If individuals explore the issues involved and feel confused or in crisis over their identity (i.e. high exploration, low commitment), they find themselves in a moratorium status. When individuals can move past the moratorium status, they reach achievement status, having shown in-depth exploration and resolution of the issues, with a clear and positive acceptance of who they are (i.e. high exploration, high commitment). Identity achievement is considered the most desirable status as it signals enhanced capacity to adapt to one’s environment and better psychological well-being (Marcia, 1966). The identity status model has been widely tested in empirical studies across a range of contexts and domains, including career identity and multicultural identity (for a review, see Kroger & Marcia, 2011), yet none have considered the relationship between the two. Hence, in this paper, we draw on the identity status model to understand the interplay of identity development in the domains of both career identity and multicultural identity.

Career identity and multicultural identity development

Career identity development

Career identity is defined as ‘a structure or network of meanings’ in which an individual consciously ties their ‘own motivation, interests and competencies with acceptable career roles’ (Meijers, 1998, p. 200).¹ According to Erikson (1968), career identity is a core element of identity; research has found that career identity ‘plays a key role in overall identity development in industrialized countries’ (Porfeli et al., 2011, p. 854). Furthermore, career identity drives career choices and the process of choosing, according to career construction theory (Savickas, 2002).

We refer to the process of constructing a career identity as career identity development. This process is influenced by interactions with one’s environment, including relevant significant relationships and societal norms (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011). Since at least the 1980s, studies of career identity development have drawn on Marcia’s identity status model, encompassing exploration, commitment and identity statuses (Hirschi, 2011; Laughland-Booÿ et al., 2017). In relation to careers, exploration might include activities such as learning about various jobs, thinking about which aspects of work are important to oneself, and trying different experiences to find several suitable jobs (Porfeli et al., 2011). Commitment involves knowing what career is best for oneself and investing energy towards achieving one’s self-chosen career goals and values (Porfeli et al., 2011; Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011). Exploration and commitment are considered to be beneficial processes that help individuals to find a suitable occupation and to persist in the face of career setbacks (Porfeli et al., 2011), and an identity status of achievement is associated with a range of positive outcomes, including positive work experiences, and enhanced self-esteem, adjustment and life satisfaction (Meeus, Iedema, Helsen, et al., 1999; Porfeli et al., 2011).

Multicultural identity development

Cultural identity is defined as an individual’s self-perceived belongingness to a social group with a distinctive set of cultural values, beliefs, and norms (Jensen et al., 2011; Usborne and Taylor, 2010). An individual’s cultural identity, constructed over time, is linked to how one perceives their roles in different social groups (such as family, organizations, and society); moreover, it informs other types of identity (such as leadership identity and gender roles) that are important in the workplace (Ashforth & Schinoff, 2016; Karjalainen, 2020). Cultural identity is often considered to be a key part of one’s overall identity, particularly when one identifies with a culture other than the mainstream culture (Phinney & Ong, 2007). In immigrant societies, many people possess a multicultural identity, which refers to ‘the condition of having strong attachments with and loyalties toward’ more than one culture (Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2010, p. 89). Multicultural identity is not simply a straightforward addition of multiple cultural identities—rather, individuals vary in how they develop their multicultural identity, and this has important implications for their adjustment and psychological well-being (Martin et al., 2019).

We refer to the process of forming a multicultural identity as multicultural identity development. Numerous studies have applied Marcia’s identity status model in the domain of cultural identity, as elaborated in Phinney’s model of ethnic identity development (Phinney, 1989).² In this domain, exploration might include activities such as talking with friends and family about ethnic/cultural issues, reading about this topic, or reflecting on how one’s cultural background affects one’s life (Crocetti et al., 2008). Commitment entails accepting, internalizing, and feeling proud of one’s multiculturalism, and taking actions to strengthen that identity, such as spending time with friends with the same cultural identity. Literature on ethnic/multicultural identity indicates that an achievement cultural identity status brings benefits for well-being and psychosocial functioning (Crocetti, 2018; Phinney & Ong, 2007).

The interplay of career identity and multicultural identity development

Limited research has explored how multicultural identity shapes career identity development (Baruch & Sullivan, 2022). Existing studies, from an acculturation perspective, have explored the career identity styles of individuals with multicultural identities, such as Asian Americans/Canadians. For instance, Tao et al. (2018) found positive links between acculturation to mainstream (Canadian) and heritage (Chinese) cultures and an informational career identity style in Chinese Canadian university students. Similarly, Polenova et al. (2018) discovered that acculturation and individual characteristics influence career identity development in Asian American university students. While these studies offer valuable insights into how acculturation to different cultures impacts career identity among multicultural individuals, they fall short in investigating cultural identity development processes and their links with career identity formation. Therefore, an opportunity exists to delve deeper into intricate interplay between career identity and cultural identity development.

Given that similar processes (commitment and exploration) underpin identity development across domains and recognizing the interrelationships between one’s different identities (Bataille & Vough, 2022), we argue that multicultural identity development is inextricably linked with career identity development. Regarding the dimension of exploration, as one seeks to understand oneself, actively question who they are and weigh up alternatives, it is to be expected that they may take this inquisitive, reflective approach across both multicultural identity and career identity domains (Tao et al., 2018). Regarding the dimension of commitment, a clear and consistent multicultural identity can substantiate and confirm one’s career identity, and vice-versa. Conversely, a confused or conflicted multicultural identity—in which one may struggle to reconcile differing cultural values and beliefs—may flow through to a lack of clarity and consistency in the values and goals guiding their career development, and vice-versa.

Hence, the purpose of this study is to examine the interplay of identity development in the domains of career and multicultural self. We refine the broad research question posed at the start of this article into three more nuanced questions:

1. What patterns of associations between multicultural identity and career identity development exist among multicultural individuals?

2. How are these patterns associated with individuals’ careers?

3. What might explain these patterns?

Methods

A narrative approach to studying identity and careers

We used a narrative approach and conducted interviews to develop a deeper understanding of individuals’ development of their career identity and multicultural identity over their lifetime.³ This enabled us to gain insights into how individuals made sense of their experiences within broader social and cultural contexts. Notwithstanding criticisms of the narrative method (e.g. individuals’ self-reported stories may not be true or accurate), we chose this method as narratives are recognized as a powerful methodological tool in a range of fields and particularly well-suited to the longitudinal nature of career identity and multicultural identity, in which one makes sense of their past and present and giving direction to one’s future (Fugate et al., 2004, p. 20). As Adler et al. (2017) asserts, narratives are dynamic reconstructions: through each telling of their story, a person constructs their own reality as they make sense of past lived experiences in that moment. Hence, narratives are not merely self-reports. The goal of the narrative method is not to obtain an objective, factual report of past events; rather, it is to discover subjective meanings (e.g. identity) that can have objective outcomes (e.g. career choices) (Adler et al., 2017). The narrative identity perspective assumes that individual narratives constitute identity and play a key role in providing a ‘subjective sense of self-continuity’ (Ezzy, 1998, p. 239). The value of a narrative approach in this study is to enable informants to share contextualized understandings of their identity construction over time, revealing the interplay of identities in the career and cultural domains (Del Corso & Rehfuss, 2011; LaPointe, 2010).

Extending prior research on narrative cultural identity (Lilgendahl et al., 2018; Yampolsky et al., 2013), we examine the structural elements—namely, complexity and coherence—of multicultural and career narratives, as these elements are likely to yield relevant insights into the identity development processes of exploration and commitment, respectively. Narrative complexity refers to the degree to which the narrator engages in self-exploration or the adoption of different perspectives, revealing a depth of thought and nuance, and a variety of emotions (Adler et al., 2016). The extent to which a multicultural individual has considered cultural and career-related matters in-depth from different angles—that is, engaged in the process of exploration—is expressed through the complexity of their life stories when talking about culture and careers. Narrative coherence refers to the degree to which the narrator describes experiences in a clear, logical sequence of goal-oriented actions, integrating specific episodes with overarching life themes or meanings (Adler et al., 2016). The extent to which a multicultural individual is able to reconcile different cultural values within themselves into a unified sense of who they are with respect to culture and career—that is, engaged in the process of commitment—is expressed through the coherence of their life stories in these domains (Yampolsky et al., 2013). Thus, in our study, narrative complexity and coherence are used to assess identity exploration and commitment, respectively.

Informant sample and recruitment

In this study, we applied a purposive sampling approach (Patton, 2014) to focus on ethnic-Chinese professionals working in Australia as a sample of multicultural individuals. Asian migrants in Western societies often grapple with multiple and potentially conflicting sets of cultural values, attitudes, and norms, which have important implications for their vocational behavior (Leong & Tata, 1990). Through social media posts, we recruited informants who met the following criteria: (a) exposed to Chinese Confucian cultural values at home while growing up; (b) spent their adolescent years in an English-speaking Anglo-Saxon culture; and (c) worked for at least two years (to ensure sufficient work experience; cf. Modestino et al., 2019). We interviewed 26 multicultural early- to mid-career professionals (14 female and 12 male), with an average work experience of 6.9 years. All our informants were permanently living and working in a major city in Australia at the time of data collection. Supplementary Table 1 summarizes the informants’ backgrounds.

Interview procedure and protocol

The first and second authors conducted the interviews, which were audio recorded.⁴ Of the 26 interviews, 22 were conducted in person and four were conducted over video calls. The interviews were in-depth, semi-structured, and lasted between 30 and 90 min (average 43 min).⁵ The interview approach was partly inspired by McAdams’s (2001) research on life stories, with questions prompting informants to elucidate personal event memories, such as stories on how the informants chose their careers. Supplementary Table 2 provides the interview protocol.

Narrative analysis

All interview transcripts were created in verbatim form and data coding was completed using NVivo software. The analysis was informed by guidelines on narrative analysis (Adler et al., 2017; Reese et al., 2011; Syed & Nelson, 2015) and thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). After familiarizing ourselves with the data, we iterated between the processes of coding and pattern analysis. In coding, we employed both deductive theory-driven and inductive data-driven approaches at the individual unit of analysis (Syed & Nelson, 2015). For the deductive coding, we began with a ‘start list’ of codes evaluating the degree of complexity and coherence in the informants’ narratives, such as ‘multicultural identity narrative complexity—high’ (Baerger & McAdams, 1999; Miles et al., 2014). Narratives coded as high in complexity revealed the individual’s differentiation of a variety of perspectives and motivations or complex emotional experiences (McAdams et al., 2006). Narratives coded as high in coherence revealed the individual’s awareness of context, a logical progression of events and reactions, expressed feelings connected to the event, and integrated one’s life story into overarching themes (Baerger & McAdams, 1999). Consistent with our theorizing, we then renamed these codes to align with Marcia’s identity development model, so that ‘narrative complexity’ was renamed ‘identity exploration’, and ‘narrative coherence’ became ‘identity commitment’.

Based on the levels of identity exploration and identity commitment in informants’ multicultural identity narratives, we deduced their multicultural identity status according to Marcia’s (1966) identity status model; likewise for career identity status. Specifically, if an individual’s identity narrative displayed high exploration and high commitment, this individual was denoted as having ‘achievement’ status; low exploration and low commitment equated to ‘diffusion’ status; high exploration and low commitment equated to ‘moratorium’ status; low exploration and high commitment equated to ‘foreclosure’ status.

To provide richer context into the factors that could influence the interplay of individuals’ multicultural identity and career identity beyond Marcia’s identity framework, we also inductively generated in vivo and descriptive codes from the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Miles et al., 2014). For career choice, most of these codes centered on the role of parents, such as autonomy in choosing own career and parent supportive of career choice.

Findings

To investigate the interplay of multicultural identity and career identity development, we created a matrix of multicultural identity status × career identity status (see Table 1), and classified informants accordingly, based on the statuses assigned to them in the coding phase. The combinations revealed three main patterns of interplay, discussed ahead: Type 1, Commanding; Type 2, Cruising; and Type 3, Contending. We call this the Multicultural-Career Identity Interplay (MCII) typology. Only three informants fell outside these three types; we do not report their findings here as we could not draw definitive conclusions from this small group.

Table 1. Multicultural-career identity interplay (MCII) typology.

Career identity status	Multicultural identity status
	Achievement	Diffusion	Moratorium
Achievement	Type 1: ‘Commanding’
Diffusion		Type 2: ‘Cruising’	Type 3: ‘Contending’
Moratorium

Note: Foreclosure status is not shown in this table as it did not apply.

We also investigated individuals’ career paths. We identified two themes from the interviews—the extent of parental influence in one’s current career choice, and the degree of constancy in one’s approach to their career choices (referring to whether one’s career choices have been consistently guided by a certain set of values, or whether their career choice was initially guided by their parents’ values and is now guided more by their own values). The prominence of parental influence on career choices is consistent with past studies with Asian-American samples (e.g. Fouad et al., 2008). Figure 1 presents a framework of career paths that illustrates how the intersection of these two dimensions (constancy and parental influence) produces four patterns in career paths: Discovering one’s own path; Changing paths; Broadening the path carved by one’s parents; Following the path carved by one’s parents.

Figure 1. Multicultural career paths framework.

Taking a holistic view, we identified factors that were typically shared by the individuals in each pattern, such as career path, immigration age and type of industry. These features are summarized in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Features of the multicultural-career identity interplay (MCII) types.

Figure 3 draws together the key phenomena in the study into an overall framework that reflects a developmental perspective on identities. The figure depicts the interplay between multicultural identity status (comprising exploration and commitment), career identity status (comprising exploration and commitment) and career paths.

Figure 3. A model of the interplay between multicultural identity and career identity development.

^aDiffusion, foreclosure, moratorium or achievement

Ahead, we discuss each of the MCII types, as well as the career paths associated with each type. We refer to informants using codenames, F1, M1, etc. where F refers to female, M refers to male, followed by a randomised code number. Supplementary Tables 3 and 4 provide additional illustrative quotes related to identity development and career paths, respectively, for each of the three types.

Type 1: Commanding

The most prominent pattern in this sample was the Commanding pattern, in which positive multicultural identity and career identity development patterns reinforced each other, with informants reaching an Achievement status (i.e. high levels of identity exploration and commitment) in both their multicultural and career identity domains. Individuals with this pattern were either born in Australia or New Zealand or had immigrated to one of these countries prior to primary school (under five years old).

Achievement status for multicultural identity

Informants’ multicultural identity narratives revealed exploration in considering various cultural perspectives. Their descriptions showed a sophisticated understanding of the concept of cultural identity and logically sequenced, clear descriptions in how they developed a hybrid cultural identity that aligned with their values and priorities. Most of them had developed complex multicultural identities reflecting both cultures, as they frequently used terms such as ‘mixed’ and ‘hybrid’ to describe their cultural identity. ⁶ Informants generally displayed greater awareness of agency, or their active role in shaping their own identity:

“I think cultural identity… what I like about it, it’s a process. You’re always learning and it’s always changing and it’s very much shaped by who’s around you and what you’re doing and what you choose to do.” – F1

They had a positive perception of their multiculturalism, with several participants referring to ‘the best of both worlds’:

“I thought it was like a good sort of living in both worlds and then can bring them and understand which parts are compatible and some parts that you might need to adjust to make it work. Yeah. So, culturally, I think I would say [I am] an interface between Asian and Western. I think I truly live both.” – M7

Achievement status for career identity

Similarly, they explored different perspectives in their career narratives, and showed commitment to overarching principles in forming their career identity.

“I’ve always had the idea of doing something outside of optometry and been working towards a few ideas. That’s when I started doing and getting a bit of experience and practice doing [creative] stuff here. Then eventually, I just decided it might be a good idea to do a [creative]brand, yeah… For me, work, it is becoming more important that I invest time doing things that I like. Even in optometry, there are parts that I enjoy doing… I try to invest in more time and thought to these things. I really think it has to be something that you actually believe in, yeah, and you want to work for.” – F2

Multicultural-career identity interplay

The mutual reinforcement between multicultural and career identities is exemplified in how their multicultural identity and skills were connected to their work motivation and careers:

“…the key motivation [for my work] is my passion for it and my hope that through it I can see change, or I can facilitate change, in areas that I’m passionate about. Say, representation of minorities or different voices or different stories” – F1

“…the company is very East meets West which is perfect for me so that was one reason why I was like oh this is a good role for me because I know both cultures… I think this job really plays my strength with both cultural perspectives” – F8

Discovering own career path

The informants in the Commanding pattern showed a high degree of autonomy in making career choices, resisting their parents’ influence. Most of the informants in this group had been Discovering their own path. These individuals recognized their parents’ career values or ideas differed from their own—even though their parents ‘don’t understand’ their career choices, it did not stop the informants from ‘trying to do my own thing’ and ‘show [my parents] that you can do things in other ways’. This pattern represented the broadest range of occupations and sectors, including those less typical for Chinese immigrants in Western societies (Hui & Lent, 2018; Tang et al., 1999), such as occupations in the union and performing arts sectors.

Type 2: Cruising

A common pattern in this sample was the Cruising pattern, in which there was little engagement in identity development. Low exploration and low commitment in their multicultural identity produced a Diffusion status, mirrored in informants’ career identity status. Informants with this pattern immigrated at primary school age (between six and 12 years old).⁷

Diffusion status for multicultural identity

Signifying low identity exploration, informants conveyed a rather simplistic view of cultural identity, often equating it with language fluency rather than exploring deeper facets of culture. Informants’ fragmented identity narratives were disconnected from cultural values.

“I would say I’m more Australian than Chinese, yeah I can barely speak any Chinese now… whereas I’m fluent in English obviously, so I identify more as an Australian than Chinese…” – M3

Indicating low identity commitment, informants indicated greater ambivalence and reluctance about defining their multicultural identity. They used phrases such as ‘blurry’, ‘it depends’, ‘it’s complicated’, ‘it’s hard’, and ‘fence sitter’—at times even opting out of defining their identity.

Diffusion status for multicultural identity

Career narratives likewise displayed one-dimensional and ambivalent perspectives, indicating low exploration. For instance, informants generally failed to articulate their reasons for choosing a certain area of study or occupation. Rather than carefully considering the contrasts or similarities between different fields or their personal strengths or values, informants typically saw it as ‘just a given’ and ‘common sense’ to study science or maths, for example.

“I don’t know why I wanted to choose that [major of study] at that time… I just went through the list going I don’t actually know what I want, I don’t know what anything is, so I applied for two degrees.” – M9

Their career narratives generally lacked a strong sense of consistent, overarching principles tying together the elements of their story, revealing low commitment to any career identity. For example, one was ‘not really’ passionate about her engineering job, but could not produce a cogent response when asked what she might prefer to do:

“I want to try lots of different things, but I don’t know if once I get a job in that field, maybe I don’t know if it will be the same or not… I used to want to do architecture but that’s a long time ago… Ah, I don’t know what I want to do now. Maybe, I don’t know, do some translation, learn another language, I don’t know, yeah… Oh maybe some data analytic, that would be cool too.” – F10

Multicultural-career identity interplay

Informants did not express concern about their underdeveloped multicultural and career identities. Informants with the Cruising pattern generally expressed their multicultural identity in a positive light (e.g. ‘happy’ to ‘never belong strongly to any one group’) or with mild ambivalence (sometimes downplaying the importance of cultural identity). Moreover, informants in this pattern also generally did not draw connections between their multicultural identity and their career identity—for example, M3 had ‘never really thought about’ how his cultural identity affected how he experienced work.

Changing or broadening career paths

Most informants in the Cruising pattern stated they were heavily influenced by their parent/s (or other family member such as grandparent or elder sibling) in their initial career choice but had since taken more control of their own careers in a direction of their own choosing. Hence, we identified Changing path as the main career path in this group, as well as Broadening the path carved by parents.⁸ Changing path refers to individuals making their own decision to change to a new field of university studies or occupation, different from their initial career choice that had been guided by their parents. For example, F5 studied at university only to appease her parents, but later chose a series of occupations that were unrelated to her studies.

Alternatively, rather than completely changing paths, some informants in this pattern chose the milder option of broadening the path carved by their parents. In these cases, informants adjusted the scope of their studies or occupation to fit better with their own interests or priorities, without straying too far from the career choice their parents wanted for them. For instance, F12 chose her field of study to satisfy her father but balanced it with another field that she enjoyed. Similarly, M11 initially studied accounting but then switched to a different major within the field of business. Although the informants recognized a disconnect between what they wanted in their careers versus what their parents wanted, and took action to re-align their careers to be closer to their own values and interests, this action typically did not prompt them to think more deeply about their multicultural identity. This approach is consistent with the diffusion status in their multicultural and career identities.

Type 3: Contending

A minority of informants displayed a Contending pattern in which their multicultural identity and career identity were at different development statuses (i.e. mismatched). This pattern featured moratorium or ‘crisis’ status (high exploration, low commitment) in multicultural identity, contrasting with a diffusion status (low-moderate exploration, low-moderate commitment) in career identity. The immigration ages of informants in this category were typically late-primary school age (between eight and twelve years old).

Moratorium status for multicultural identity

The narratives of the individuals in this pattern revealed that despite actively exploring their cultural identity, they struggled to reach a clear resolution on their cultural identity. Thus, they contended with a self-described identity ‘crisis’ or uncertainty over their identity, which corresponds most closely to a moratorium identity status (Marcia, 1966). The informants tended to describe their identity in terms that juxtaposed the two cultural parts of them, such as ‘not fully Australian, not fully Taiwanese’, and ‘not ‘Australian Australian’ but also not ‘Chinese Chinese’’ and ‘halfway in the middle’.

Perceptions of multicultural identity were mixed. M1 highlighted instances of racial discrimination and feeling insecure in his right to belong in New Zealand due to his Asian appearance and migrant status, whereas M10 was overall very positive about having a multicultural identity, and F7 expressed ambivalence about her ‘Australasian’ identity and the ‘conflicting values’ within herself that sometimes ‘troubles’ her. Some individuals were making an effort to change the balance of their cultural identity, to strive to become either ‘more Asian’ or ‘more Western’.

Diffusion status for career identity

Informants in this pattern demonstrated limited exploration and commitment in their career identities. Individuals indicated they were content to remain in one career and had generally not explored work possibilities outside their chosen field. Further, overall career narratives generally lacked grounding in consistent values. On the one hand, M1 was strongly influenced by his strict parents’ work ethic as well as the ‘opportunity to make a difference’ in his work. On the other hand, when talking about the meaning of work, he stated that ‘work is a means to an end, right?’; he later also described himself as ‘the kind of person who works to live, not live to work’. Although these sets of values are not diametrically opposed to each other, they do suggest some misalignment and impediment to supporting a consistent career identity.

Multicultural-career identity interplay

The struggle and failure to reach an achievement multicultural identity status may have hindered some individuals from reaching an achievement career identity status. That is, an ever-present sense of threat to belonging in mainstream society (stemming from cultural upbringing), appeared to have an impact on one’s career self-concept:

“…they [my parents] told me right at the very, very young age that you have to work hard, right… The only way they [New Zealanders] will let you stay [in New Zealand] is if you work hard and work better than everybody else. Otherwise, they’ll ask you to pack up your bags and go back to where you come from kind of stuff. So, I’ve always remembered that… I work very hard and I’m very good overall… I had to perform better in my job, you know, in order to feel included and in order for other people to recognize me.” – M1

“… either subconsciously or over-consciously from your parents or from family you get pushed into these careers that are supposedly stable and make good money and because that’s I think the only way that we can validate ourselves or have agency in this country is only through having a lot of money, the power, having money is a form of power I guess” – M6

A strong desire to succeed in one’s career (prompted by insecure cultural identity) may have overridden any desire to explore other career options or develop a career identity linked to consistent values of one’s own (not merely values inherited from their parents). Thus, one’s career may have provided a way to address cultural identity insecurities arising from self-consciousness over one’s immigrant background. This indicates that a negative feedback loop may exist between multicultural identity and career identity development for some individuals.

Following the career path carved by parents

The Contending pattern tended to be associated with strong parental influence on one’s chosen career path, from which the individual did not subsequently deviate, even if they were not satisfied in their career choice. Unsurprisingly, the careers represented in this pattern were those typically favoured by Asian-ethnic migrants: health, business, and engineering (Tang et al., 1999). For instance, M1 intended to study something different to his parents’ career backgrounds, but they ‘pushed’ and ‘nudged’ him towards a more ‘suitable’ career (i.e. dentistry or medicine):

“And when I first got the offer, I actually wasn’t going to come so my dad had a lot to do with it… Long story short there’s a lot of things involved, but he basically said, ‘This is a golden opportunity. You have to take it’.” – M1

Discussion

Integrating a narrative perspective with the identity status model, our study aimed to understand the ways that an individual’s career may be shaped by, and may shape, their multicultural identity. We now address each of the research questions posed at the start of this paper. First, the MCII typology reveals that multicultural identity development and career identity development generally appear to be mutually reinforcing (Commanding and Cruising types). The more a person has reached a clear and strong multicultural identity, developed by exploring the cultural domain (reaching an achievement identity status), the more likely they are to also have a clear and strong career identity developed by exploring the career domain. However, our findings also offer a more nuanced view of the interplay between career identity and multicultural identity development, as the MCII typology contains a third pattern (Contending), whereby some individuals struggle to resolve an identity crisis in the cultural domain (moratorium cultural identity status) yet face no such crisis in the career domain (diffusion career identity status). This third type is intriguing and we return to a possible reason for this in the third research question ahead. Our findings extend the literature on career identity status by studying its links with cultural identity, an identity domain that has previously been overlooked in this literature. Previously, career identity status had primarily been studied in relation to the domains of ideological, lifestyle, religious, and political identity (Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998).

The second research question related to how the MCII types are associated with individual careers. We found systematic relationships between the MCII types and the career paths of the study informants. Overall, we identified four career paths, distinguished by varying levels of autonomy versus parental influence over one’s current career choice and the degree of constancy in the individual’s approach to career choices, which we synthesized into a dual-dimensional framework of multicultural career paths. Although parental influence has been recognized as an input to career identity development (Lam & Tam, 2011), the concept of career paths underpinned by patterns of parental influence is new to the HRM literature. Prominent concepts or theories in this literature, such as protean and boundaryless career orientations, center on individual agency (Baruch & Sullivan, 2022), whereas the conceptualization of career paths we put forward takes a more relational perspective. We argue these four career paths may be particularly pertinent to individuals with certain ethnic backgrounds in which family and respect for elders are important traditional values (Fouad et al., 2008; Hui & Lent, 2018). Thus, our relational-oriented framework of career paths enriches and advances careers theory in more culturally inclusive, relational directions, helping the field of HRM to evolve to the contemporary reality of workforces in which many individuals possess multicultural identities.

As to the third research question, on why different patterns emerge, a novel finding from this study was that immigration age may be an important new factor to consider in career identity development.⁹ Individuals who were most likely to have engaged in high multicultural identity exploration and commitment were second-generation immigrants (i.e. born in a Western country to Asian immigrant parents) or 1.5-generation immigrants who had immigrated in the first few years of their life. Studies in cultural psychology have found a correlation between age of immigration and early immersive culture mixing (the degree to which a person experiences a mixed culture in the family home during their formative years), a phenomenon which shapes the development of a multicultural identity in adulthood (Martin et al., 2019; Martin & Shao, 2016). Individuals in the Commanding pattern were all born either in Australia or New Zealand or had arrived before the age of five (i.e. before starting school), and were therefore more likely to have experienced early immersive culture mixing, in which they had to grapple with both Chinese and Western cultures simultaneously as they formed their multicultural identity and career identity (Martin & Shao, 2016). This environment would compel them to go through a period of exploration and uncertainty before being able to commit to a multicultural identity.

Individuals in the Cruising pattern, by contrast, immigrated during primary school. Hence, they had already spent at least five years in a Chinese society, being raised with Chinese cultural values at home before being immersed in a new cultural environment. These individuals displayed less interest in their cultural identity and conveyed less sense of agency over their identity, yet no anxiety over their identity. Given that they perceived their lack of strong cultural identity to have few, if any, negative effects on them, perhaps this could explain why they may not have felt any pressure to develop a strong and clear career identity, but rather simply be at ease with different cultural values and beliefs co-existing within themselves in both domains.

Turning to the mismatched Contending pattern, individuals in this group tended to have immigrated at an older age in our sample—mostly in late primary school. Like those in the Cruising pattern, the Contending pattern informants would have been embedded in one cultural environment then shifted to another, but it may have presented them more challenges (such as encountering discrimination) and ‘culture shock’ as they had already spent years at school in Asia. Due to this lack of early immersive culture mixing, they are likely to view the Asian and Western parts of themselves in a compartmentalized way—as indicated in how they talked about their cultural identity—which tends to lead to poorer psychosocial outcomes (Cheng et al., 2014). This could help explain why the informants’ moratorium multicultural identity status was not reflected in their (diffusion) career identity status: Refraining from career exploration and commitment may be a strategy to contain their identity struggles within the domain of cultural identity (cf. Ramarajan & Reid, 2013). Hence, the study findings enhance our understanding on career identity development of multicultural individuals by providing preliminary evidence that immigration age (insofar as it relates to early immersive culture mixing) may matter to multicultural identity development, with possible implications for career identity development.

Practical implications

Beyond extending theory, the study findings can inform a range of stakeholders. The MCII typology and career paths framework is a useful tool for career counsellors and mentors to support multicultural individuals navigate their identities and careers. Skorikov and Vondracek (2011, p. 708) noted that successful counselling interventions ‘require a much deeper understanding of occupational [career] identity than has been achieved so far’ and called for studies to cast light on the nature of the relationships of career identity to other identity domains, and on the developmental processes that underpin career identity development. The current study investigated both these topics and can thus help guide counselling interventions specific to multicultural individuals. It has been asserted that career counsellors who advise on ‘career development’ must look beyond the work role and rather seek to cultivate ‘human development’ (Richardson, 1999, cited in Savickas, 2002, p. 160). In keeping with this approach, the MCII typology and career paths framework can help counsellors to guide their multicultural clients to understand how broader life aspects, such as parental influence, can influence one’s career paths. By shedding light on how immigration age appears to be associated with different identity patterns, the study findings highlight the need to develop more targeted career counselling interventions in the future, by which variations in the multicultural experience are taken into account (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011).

For multicultural individuals, the MCII framework and career paths framework may prompt on them to reflect on the implications of how they manage their multicultural identity and career identity, including how their careers may be constrained or enhanced by the way they approach their multicultural identity. For instance, individuals who recognize that they display a pattern other than Commanding may consider taking actions to explore and strengthen either their multicultural identity or their career identity, to strive to move towards attaining achievement identity status and discovering their own career path. Given that narratives constitute identity, the typology can empower individuals to become more conscious in the stories they tell about their multicultural identity or careers and deliberately change their narrative, as a means of making sense of themselves in a new way (Del Corso & Rehfuss, 2011).

When individuals unquestioningly follow a narrow path carved by their parents, or they adopt an identity that leaves internal contradictions or tensions unresolved, they may limit their potential and ability to thrive in their careers, the effects of which manifest at a macro level. In society, the more that multicultural individuals can explore, discover, and pursue a range of career activities best aligned with their values, desires, and priorities, the better the outcome for culturally diverse representation across the spectrum of occupations, positions, and sectors. These matters are important to study because they may provide insights into why ethnic minorities are typically underrepresented in senior leadership positions and in certain sectors or occupations, a problem that is of increasing concern for organizations and policy makers (Groutsis et al., 2018). Therefore, to help ethnic minority individuals realize their career potential and make their best contribution to organizations and society, it is essential and timely to extend career identity development theory into the domain of multicultural identity. This research is thus an important step towards building an understanding of how multicultural identity is a crucial factor in shaping careers and developing more diverse workplaces.

Limitations and future research

We identify several avenues for future research to address some limitations of this study and extend our research. First, future research could consider how other outcomes such as life satisfaction or career satisfaction, which we did not seek to examine in this study, may be associated with each MCII type. Second, our study suggests the importance of further examining the impact of family to the career, including exploring possible cross-cultural differences by using samples of multicultural individuals from different ethnic backgrounds (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011). Third, the current findings tentatively indicate that immigration age may predict different identity patterns and career paths. This opens a new avenue for careers research that seeks to understand multicultural individuals—further research into the effects of immigration age could lead to new theory in other career aspects.

Conclusion

This study advances the field by offering multicultural identity development as an explanation for different patterns of career identity development and career paths. Prior to our research, cultural identity development had not been investigated in this context, leaving a gap in understanding the career development of the rising segment of the working population who are multicultural individuals, including migrants, refugees, and their descendants. As more multicultural individuals enter the workforce, the MCII typology (on the multicultural-career identity development interplay) and the multicultural career paths framework presented in this paper provide a relational-oriented perspective that helps HRM scholarship to better align with societal changes, which will be valuable to organizations in multicultural societies.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Also known as occupational, vocational, work or professional identity (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011), though there are some nuances among these terms (Fugate et al., 2004; LaPointe, 2010).

2 Multicultural identity and ethnic identity are somewhat interchangeable terms, but the emphasis in the former is on multiple cultures, whereas the emphasis in the latter is on the ethnic – i.e., non-mainstream – culture.

3 This project was approved by the Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee, ID 2019-138, and The University of Melbourne Business and Economics Human Ethics Advisory Group, ID 1750637.3.

4 We obtained written informed consent for participation and recording of interviews from the informants.

5 Data reported in this paper were collected as part of a larger study that examined the vocational experiences of multicultural individuals.

6 One informant, M12, considered his identity to be “none” but he was comfortable with that.

7 With one exception, F5, who immigrated at 13 years of age.

8 Other career paths identified in this group were Discovering own path and Following the path carved by their parents, but as these paths were only observed in one participant each, we do not discuss them in this pattern.

9 We thank an anonymous reviewer for raising this possibility.