https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5334-5123
Abstract
A high food intake can contribute to increased greenhouse-gas emissions, and therefore consumers with a high energy intake are important to include when exploring sustainable foodways. In this paper, semi-structured interviews and a seven-day food record were used to understand the climate impact of food, analyse mundane food practices, and identify sustainable routines among high-energy consumers represented by a group of recreational athletes. Social practice theory and the interdependent relationship between competence, material, and meaning unfold an Athletic performance-related food practice with a focus on performance, time-saving strategies, structured eating, and a possible Climate-conscious athletic performance-related food practice where the food practice also includes important sustainability aspects. The results indicate a high carbon footprint from high energy and dairy and whey protein intake. Some recreational athletes demonstrate an awareness of the climate impact of food, but they need to be convinced that more sustainable ways are possible without jeopardising athletic performance.
Introduction
Changing consumption patterns towards lower levels of greenhouse gas emissions is crucial for achieving the climate goals set out in the Paris Agreement (UN General Assembly Citation2015). The most common suggestion for dietary intake is to lower meat consumption, especially from ruminants, and increase plant-based foods (Hallstrom et al. Citation2015; Röös et al. Citation2015). Previous research suggests diets based on theoretical calculations of how more climate-friendly diets can be achieved (Dooren Citation2018; Röös et al. Citation2015; Willett et al. Citation2019). It is essential to recognise and highlight how different social groups are affected by dietary changes and how they can contribute to a positive solution. For example, athletes consume more energy to balance the increased energy expenditure. They usually also have a substantial protein intake. Furthermore, a high food intake can increase greenhouse gas emissions, especially when considering protein sources. In this study, athletes were represented by CrossFit practitioners as a growing group of consumers (Hendersson Citation2018) with high energy requirements and protein intake, even at a recreational level.
CrossFit is a trademarked training system that can be performed as an exercise and competition, including endurance elements, bodyweight movements, gymnastics, powerlifting, and Olympic weightlifting (Glassman Citation2002). CrossFit is characterised by self-monitoring, peer support, and coaches’ guidance and an identity linked to their training regime, expanding to the essence of who they are, what they look like, and what they eat (Dawson Citation2017) The recommended nutritional approach is the palaeolithic diet, with low carbohydrate and high protein recommendations, that might result in a substantial carbon footprint if the protein sources are not chosen carefully (Cambeses-Franco et al. Citation2021; O'Malley et al. Citation2019). Therefore, CrossFit athletes are an interesting consumer group to investigate regarding the carbon footprint of food intake.
Addressing the knowledge gap
The variation in eating practices in different social environments is vital for investigating whether climate goals can be achieved in food consumption. Research on the climate impact of athletes has mainly focussed on things other than their food: how active people transport themselves, foods served in the arenas, and equipment materials within specific sports (Cunningham et al. Citation2020; Wicker Citation2019). Athletes’ food consumption has not yet been studied from a climate perspective. In-depth studies of factors influencing individuals’ food choices among high energy consumption groups, such as physically active people, are sparse and primarily based on surveys (Birkenhead and Slater Citation2015; Stickler et al. Citation2022). Previous studies have rated performance as the most influential factor in athletes’ food choices. For example, a food choice questionnaire for physically active individuals suggests that CrossFit practitioners valued protein intake and performance-related items higher than active in other sports such as climbing, running, and gym training (Nuszbaum Citation2022).
Theory - a social practices approach to understanding food consumption
Social practice theory emphasises the nature of everyday life as a social entity of structure and agency (Warde Citation2005; Halkier et al. Citation2011). Social practice theory has been applied in sociological research on food habits (Hargreaves Citation2011; Warde Citation2005). Food consumption is a complex social practice based on a shared understanding (“know-how”) of what food and eating are and how it is done. Instead of understanding food consumption as an individual action, social practice theory demonstrates how shared understanding and norms affect how practices evolve and are maintained (Kurz et al. Citation2015). Shove et al. describe that a practice shapes and re-shapes from a continuously changing structure and agent, without one being more important than the other, and the notion that our actions are routinised behaviour and not random (Shove et al. Citation2012). This study intents to capture the complexity of eating and food consumption.
Marshall (Citation2016) added sustainability as a dimension to food consumption. She describes balance and negotiation due to the cultural conditions and ideals required to maintain a certain level of sustainable practice. Further, she states that these negotiations occur continuously at a more individual level, but the behaviour can be seen throughout the identified sustainable food practice (Marshall Citation2016).
Numerous studies have applied social practice theory to studies of food consumption. For example, Fuentes and Fuentes (Citation2022) studied plant-based food consumption in meat-centric landscapes. Biermann and Rau (Citation2020) addressed sustainability’s role when eating at home or in restaurants. Dubuisson‐Quellier and Gojard (Citation2016) described sustainable and unsustainable food practices in different social groups in France.
The theoretical perspective provided by social practice theory moves away from the individual mindset and focuses on behaviours within a group. This theory is well suited for eating and food consumption studies because it captures the mundane, repetitive, and routines (Warde Citation2014). Social practice theory acknowledges the complexity of food consumption by observing all activities as a unit and not breaking them down into single tasks, such as planning, shopping, cooking, storing, and cleaning (Hargreaves Citation2011; Keller et al. Citation2016). In our study, the practice of food consumption was intertwined with the participants’ training habits.
Conceptual framework
The social practice theory is used in a conceptual framework to understand how and why particular food practices shape, change, and become parts of everyday routines. To help identify possible food practices, the interdependent relations between competence, material, and meaning were analysed according to Shove et al. (Citation2012). All three elements must be present and linked to form a practice. Competence refers to the cognitive abilities necessary to implement and participate in a specific practice. Materials include the physical material elements used, ranging from tools to infrastructure and even the human body. According to Shove et al. (Citation2012, p 23), meaning is explained as “the social and symbolic significance of participation at any one moment”, aiding in describing emotions, thoughts, and motivation. These elements repeatedly affect and shape each other. They represent links and connections as continually established or disconnected, indicating that a practice is a dynamic and continuous process. Finally, we examine what influences recreational athletes’ food consumption embedded in everyday life routines. Thus, the intention is to look beyond conventional methods, which primarily describe food consumption as intentional and conscious choices of individual consumers.
The current study combines a social practice-oriented perspective with dietary research and the climate impact aspect and assesses how this is affected and transformed in performance-focussed consumers. First, this study explores the potential links and connections between competence and meaning and how they relate to climate consideration, nutritional knowledge, and performance. Next, the relationship between competence and materials was addressed by focussing on food - planning, storage, and waste. Finally, the authors investigated the relationship between material and meaning using questions concerning eating habits, climate considerations, and performance. The theoretical framework is illustrated in .
Figure 1. A conceptual framework based on the model by Shove et al. (Citation2012) p14 adapted to food consumption in recreational athletes to evaluate the relation between factors concerning climate consideration and performance.
This study aimed to gain an in-depth understanding of recreational CrossFit athletes’ food consumption practices and the possible role of climate consideration. The following research questions were asked: What elements shape recreational CrossFit athletes’ food consumption practices? How can food consumption be understood based on the choice of protein sources, energy intake, and carbon footprint? How can climate consideration in food consumption be understood?
Method
This study followed a mixed-method approach using interviews complemented by quantitative data to bridge the gap between everyday food practices and theoretical calculations. The qualitative results will be analysed by following the elements of competence, material, and meaning to describe food consumption in recreational CrossFit athletes (). The quantitative data of food records add information about protein sources, food intake, and carbon footprint expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents (kg CO2e/kg, further expressed as CO2e/kg if not otherwise specified). CO2e represents the total greenhouse gas emissions emitted throughout a product’s lifecycle, from production and subsequent phases (Cucurachi et al. Citation2019).
Figure 2. A methodological framework for determining what degree of influence performance and climate consideration has on food consumption. How different factors symbolise the dimensions of competence, material, and meaning and how they possibly affect food consumption in recreational athletes.
The inclusion criteria were female and male CrossFit practitioners 18-40 years old with a minimum of ten hours of training per week at different intensity levels. Detailed information is available in Supplementary Appendix 1. The participants all trained at the same gym and were acquainted; some were friends and socialised in their spare time. The study recruited CrossFit practitioners between July and September 2020. The participants were nine young adults with no children, five females and four males, 23-30 years old. The main author reviewed the transcribed interviews continuously for saturation, ending data collection when an adequate depth of understanding to build a theory was reached (Braun and Clarke Citation2021). Based on the homogeneity of the study group, saturation was achieved in nine participants, as determined when interviews provided limited new information (Hagaman and Wutich Citation2017). A summary of the participants’ sociodemographic data is presented in and Supplementary Appendix 1.
Table 1. Participant characteristics.
This study was approved by the Gothenburg Regional Ethics Committee #2019-05316. Before signing the consent form, the main author provided oral and written information to all participants. Participants were free to drop out of the study without further explanation. The study used identification numbers to protect the participants’ identities.
Dietary assessment
Each participant performed a seven-day weighed food record using the online tool Nutrition Data (Nutrition Data Sweden AB, Norsjö., Sweden) version 20.11.11. The database contains a wide range of foods, including whey products, commonly used in sports nutrition. All participants received standardised text messages to enhance their compliance. The seven-day weighed food record was recorded over two weeks and divided into two occasions (4 + 3 days). Each participant was offered a portable scale for weighing food. The study used the online food diary to assess energy and macro-and micronutrient intake. Further, it used the RISE climate database (Florén et al. Citation2017) in DietistNet (Kost och Näringsdata Citation2020) version 1.6 to assess CO2e. The carbon footprint of whey protein was entered manually as 40.65 kg CO2e/kg, as calculated by (Bacenetti et al. Citation2018).
Interviews about food practice
Within five weeks of completing the food diaries, all participants were interviewed. Compliant with the aim of this study, the interviews focussed on how and why the participants chose their foods. The open-ended interview questions offered greater flexibility in the participants’ answers to illustrate relevant issues. The participants were asked about their training habits and daily activities to estimate their physical activity level (PAL). The 20 to 30-minute interviews were transcribed in verbatim. In conjunction with the interviews, all participants were asked to provide photographs of their food consumption. Questions about food shopping habits, cooking skills, nutritional knowledge, and knowledge of the climate impact of food were asked to understand participants’ competence.
Furthermore, questions concerning shopping, cooking, and food storage were asked to identify the materials of importance. Finally, the participants were asked about their attitudes towards food, performance, and climate consideration and how they valued these different aspects to disclose meanings. The participants were informed that the interview would address their food consumption but not that climate consideration was an area of interest.
Data analysis
The interviews were analysed using NVivo Pro (QSR International Pty Ltd., 2020). The main author analysed the interviews in three phases. The transcribed interviews were first searched unconditionally and then reviewed for patterns related to the dimensions presented in the methodological framework (). In the third phase, competence, material, and meaning were used to identify links and connections. Finally, citations from the interviews were translated from Swedish to English.
All phases of the analysis were performed by the main author and were discussed within the research group to reach a consensus. The authors’ interest in exploring the attitudes towards climate consideration in food consumption among recreational athletes serves as the basis of this study. The focus of the analysis was to identify practices formed by links and connections found in the textual content.
Because of the small sample size, descriptive data were analysed using median and interquartile ranges. SPSS Statistics (IBM Citation2019) was used for all statistical analyses. PAL was estimated using metabolic equivalents (MET) (Ainsworth et al. Citation2011). PAL is a compiled estimation, in this study based on the values of individual sports performed in CrossFit. Height (cm) and weight (kg) were self-reported to the nearest kilogram or centimetre. The energy requirement was estimated by multiplying PAL with the basal metabolic rate (BMR) calculated by the Harris and Benedict equation (Souza et al. Citation2020). Protein sources were divided into animal- or plant-based groups. Candy was not categorised because of low-quality information on protein content and sparse intake.
Results
Important competence for their food consumption
Analysis of the interviews revealed competencies (nutritional knowledge, cooking skills, food shopping habits, and knowledge of climate impact from food) connected to material (food storage, function of the body and car for grocery shopping) and meaning (importance and attitude towards food, performance, and climate consideration).
Knowledge of the climate impact of foods varied, but all participants were somewhat aware. When participants were asked about the climate impact of foods, the most common answers concerned red meat, organically grown crops, dairy products, and animal ethics. These answers were supported by the food diaries’ findings, where only 9% of the protein intake came from red meat. Nonetheless, 70% of the total protein intake was animal-based, with dairy (21%) and whey protein (19%) products as the primary protein sources (). In addition, many participants mentioned that they chose organic meat and dairy products depending on their price and availability. Another display of climate-conscious competence is that planned and structured food consumption leads to less food waste.
Table 2. Energy and protein intake in grams per day.
"I am cautious not to waste food. If I buy everything myself, I rarely throw away food because it has gone bad. Everything in the refrigerator is then eaten" - Male 4
These routinised doings display competence (nutritional knowledge, knowledge of climate impact from food, food shopping habits, and cooking skills) and link to material (food storage).
Calculations of CO2e from the food intake have the median of 0.47 kg CO2e per M.J. or 2.12-ton CO2e per year if the weekly energy intake is recalculated as a yearly average, , and Supplementary Appendix 1. Some links between competence (food shopping habits, cooking skills, nutritional knowledge, and knowledge of climate impact from food), and meaning (attitude towards performance and importance of climate consideration) can be identified. However, they are not tight enough to create connections to form a practice centred around climate consideration.
Table 3. Mean energy and macronutrient intake and carbon footprint.
Nutritional knowledge, cooking skills, structure, and ways to keep food ready and available evolve to facilitate physical performance while managing a tight schedule. When discussing food and meals with the participants, they discussed food as building blocks with different functions, as macronutrients, and not as ingredients. This way of viewing food as nutrients requires nutritional knowledge, essential for the athletic performance-centred food practice, by creating strong connections between competence (nutritional knowledge) and meaning (importance and attitude towards performance). To increase their nutritional knowledge, many participants have sought nutritional advice to help them plan their diet. The sources of advice were professional dietitians, nutritionists, and social media.
Additionally, nutritional interest and knowledge increased with training. Planning and structure are essential, and an increased ability to perform serves as the primary goal. Performance is often prioritised over food’s taste, aroma, and palatability.
“Like yesterday, I made real lasagne, 14 lunch boxes, and I do not even like lasagne that much” - Female 3
She continued to explain that lunch boxes have excellent macronutrient content and are time efficient.
Materials of importance for food consumption
Planning, preparing, and cooking food is highly organised, and lunch boxes are often made for all meals except breakfast. One participant described the importance of lunch boxes.
“I usually shop once a week to make lunch boxes and things like that so that I do everything in one day, so I do not have to think any more about it” - Female 1
This meticulous planning demands certain paraphernalia, such as the boxes used to store the prepared meals. Lunch boxes become material of great importance to facilitate the food practice () by connecting to both competence (nutritional knowledge) and meaning (attitude towards performance). Many participants chose glass lunch boxes because of their reusability and ease of cleaning. The participants also preferred glass boxes as many felt hesitant to heat the food in plastic containers. Climate consideration was not the main reason for this choice; thus, even if links between material (food storage) and meaning (attitude towards climate consideration) were identified, they did not create meaning for the participants.
Figure 3. Photos displaying food preparation (lunch boxes) provided by the study participants.
Meanings of food consumption
The findings suggest that the participants highly value performance. Many described that increased training and focussing on performance affected other areas of their lives. Activities, such as planning and preparing meals, have become increasingly important. The goal seems to be easy access to a well-balanced diet and, in their opinion, a nutritious meal suitable for performance. Expressed by the participants:
“For me, food is more for performance… A tool for performance really” - Male 3
“Now the food is to optimize performance as much as possible and be able to recover as well as possible” - Male 2
These citations are representative of how participants described their relationships with food. Details regarding energy and macronutrient intake are presented in . Energy intake was 86.0% and 94.5% in women and men, respectively, compared with estimated energy requirements. The median daily protein intake was 147 grams or 2.2 g per kg bodyweight.
The introduction of CrossFit in their lives seems to have changed the participants’ food practices, for example, when and how they shop, cook, and eat food. Eating for performance is not regarded in the same way as eating as a part of social activity. However, what kind of food is consumed has meaning, and many CrossFit practitioners express a desire to ‘eat clean’. The choice of organic crops, meat, and dairy can be linked to the notion of ‘eating clean’.
“I absolutely do not want any rubbish in my body; I want high-quality fuel and not just fuel” -Male 3
Many participants wanted to avoid ultra-processed and semi-processed foods and thought cooking should be based on high-quality ingredients.
“This is how I see it… So, I would not say I like to buy semi-processed products and stuff; there should be as few ingredients as possible in the food… That is what I think” - Female 2.
Processed foods affect participants’ sense of control, as they cannot oversee meal content, such as fat and salt. Controlling meal content creates connections between competence (nutritional knowledge, food shopping habits) and meaning (attitudes towards performance).
The participants also saw their own body as a tool for performance and, to some extent, ignored the adverse effects that high training workload and structured eating behaviour might have on long-term health. In this notion, the body becomes material, something of use to reach one’s performance goal, creating clear connections between material (function of the body) and meaning (importance and attitude towards performance).
Athletic performance-related food practice
The idea of food as fuel is centred on athletic performance, as shown in . Many participants regarded their current eating behaviour as partially unhealthy, either because of a large caloric intake or being too structured, and that it must change when focussing on performance in the future decline. Maintaining the high energy intake required today to perform CrossFit may in the future lead to weight gain. This scenario was mentioned by several participants and connected to competence (nutritional knowledge) and material (function of the body). They also expressed hesitancy regarding highly structured eating.
Figure 4. An Athletic performance-centred food practice identified by the methodological framework. Arrows show established connections between competence, material, and meaning. Indicators towards the centre confirm that the three dimensions are all connected to a CrossFit-centred food practice.
“Sometimes, I think I let it take over my life too much. I analyse what I eat, whether it is good or not. I do not think analysing everything is healthy in the long run. Sometimes it does not have to be perfect” -Female 5
Female participants described structured eating as negatively influencing their relationship with food. Current eating patterns affect nutritional knowledge, attitudes towards food, planning, shopping, cooking, food choices, and the social entity of eating. However, food was still essential to the participants’ social lives if it did not interfere with their training schedule or had the right quality to fuel their performance. Social events were planned to fit their training schedule and were often shared with friends who also trained CrossFit. This adaptation strengthens the connections to CrossFit as a part of a new food practice since no one questions a highly structured eating behaviour. Thus, eating and socialising with other CrossFit practitioners tightens the links and connections between training and an athletic performance-centred food practice.
Climate-conscious athletic performance-related food practice
Some participants negotiated with themselves to justify the higher CO2e from food consumption. They might consume less of other products that impact the climate to allow them to continue to eat meat even if they are aware of the high CO2e emissions.
“Sometimes, I have thought so about meat and so on. But I think you can choose. I have always been like this: You can choose what you want to invest in a little. I do not have 15 pairs of jeans in my closet. I have three or two pairs, which should be sufficient. Or I ride my bicycle daily to work or walk. I do not travel by car or bus so. Of course, you can think about food. However, I would not stop eating meat” - Female 3
Another way to motivate continued meat consumption is to buy organically produced meat or search for plant-based alternatives when available and affordable. Links are established to meaning (importance and attitude towards climate consideration), not only from food but also from other areas that affect their everyday lives.
Furthermore, the planning, structure, and preparation of lunch boxes, calculated to reach the participants’ nutritional goals, leads to low food waste. This benefit was notable to the researchers, even though the climate impact was not the intent when participants prepared lunch boxes. Lunch boxes form links from competence (nutritional knowledge, cooking skills, and food shopping habits) to material (food storage) and, for some participants, also to meaning (importance and attitude towards climate consideration).
Two participants displayed a distinct climate consideration and had the lowest CO2e with 0.24 kg and 0.34 kg per M.J, respectively, which was substantially lower than the group median of 0.47 kg CO2e per M.J, further individual data of intake and carbon footprint can be found in Supplementary Appendix 1. The climate-conscious participants’ athletic performance was at the same high level. They did not experience any adverse effects from predominantly plant-based protein intake. Nonetheless, no apparent practice was forming surrounding climate-conscious food consumption in the total study group. The participants displayed adequate knowledge and means to make their food consumption more climate-friendly but valued athletic performance to a greater extent.
Discussion
The results suggest an athletic performance-centred food practice, as the core value of the food practice was the desire to maintain and improve physical performance. The participants could disregard the taste, aroma, and texture of meals if they were nutritious and adequate as fuel for training. They had a relatively high climate impact from food owing to high energy intake and protein sources but still showed some climate consideration.
For the recreational athletes in this study, physical performance is decisive for their food consumption. Time also plays an essential role in a context where training is a dominant part of life. Several participants constantly felt short of time and tried to optimise their everyday lives. Saving time required competence in making shortcuts and suitable materials, such as lunchboxes for meals. Previous studies have identified time-saving strategies in other sports, such as triathletes (Robins and Hetherington Citation2005) and football players (Long et al. Citation2011). Preparing food purchases and lunch boxes to eat at work or in the gym was a way to be time-efficient for our participants. They valued quick and convenient meals in their everyday routines.
Participants in this study viewed food as a building block for muscle mass and endurance. As a result, food is often referred to as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Scrinis (Citation2008) explains this phenomenon as ‘nutritionism’, a cultural change in the attitude towards food, previously described as familiar and holistic but now reduced to nutrients. This view aligns with Skuland and Ånestad (Citation2012) study on consumer motives among participants who exercised several times a week and reported regular consumption of sports nutrition products. Likewise, consumption of sports nutrition products was pronounced in the current study. Skuland and Ånestad (Citation2012) argue that ‘nutritionism’ has influenced their participants’ perceptions of food being meals to thinking about food in terms of its nutrient composition, similarly with our findings.
Furthermore, they described how participants connect certain nutrients to bodily health (Skuland and Ånestad Citation2012). In the current study, whey protein powder and sports nutrition products supported an attitude towards food as a building block. The purpose of food is to provide energy to train and recover, reinforcing the emphasis on performance.
When reflecting on their food consumption, our participants did not express the same focus on protein as in previous studies of football players (Long et al. Citation2011). However, the seven-day weighed food record displayed an intake of 2.2 g per kg body weight, where 70% was animal-based. In addition, the participants consumed a substantial amount of whey protein powder and other whey and dairy products, constituting more than 40% of their protein intake. Whey protein supplementation is often used in sports because of its positive effects on muscle gain (Castro et al. Citation2019). It is also a convenient product.
The focus on ‘clean eating’ was pronounced in the current study, and participants valued control over their meal content. There is no consensus on what is incorporated into clean eating, but common factors include natural and wholesome foods and avoiding processed and semi-processed foods (Ambwani et al. Citation2019). This description resembles how the participants in our study communicated what is considered eligible foods. Ventresca and Brady (Citation2015) described a changing attitude among athletes towards several foods (processed foods, artificial sweeteners, non-organic meat) and products that could adversely affect performance; this change is similar to the change in attitude to food consumption in our study.
Further, ‘clean eating’ was a way to ensure the quality of the ‘fuel’ and is thus a vital part of performance-centred food practice. The view of food as ‘clean’ links to perceiving food as a building block and that only clean fuel is suitable for performance. However, there was a discrepancy in the participants’ reflections regarding ‘clean eating’- whey protein is an ultra-processed product that is far from natural. Instead of dismissing whey protein as unnatural, they view it as a protein in its purest form.
The performance-centred food practices can facilitate a precarious eating pattern that values control and structure and borders unhealthy; however, in this group, it is accepted as part of the norm. Higgs (Citation2015) explained that social influence on eating is dynamic and that following a norm is more likely when a social group has a shared identity. Adopting a norm within a group can create a stronger sense of belonging and being liked (Higgs Citation2015). One strategy in our study was socialising with friends, who also focussed on CrossFit training to avoid questions about structured eating.
Similarly, Higgs (Citation2015) stated that social norms could change self-perceptions and affect food choices, food intake, and taste preferences. In the current study, participants’ food consumption was influenced by the norms related to a high focus on physical performance by shared understandings and committing to collective standards (Warde Citation2005). Being part of a CrossFit-centred community makes it easier for participants to maintain a food practice that others perceive as restricted and controlled, creating links to meaning (importance and attitude towards performance).
The participants enjoyed cooking and eating with friends and were aware of the importance of palatability in social contexts. However, they can disregard this in everyday cooking if their energy and protein levels are adequate. In a study by Biermann and Rau (Citation2020), the taste was central to how people valued their food consumption at home and in restaurants. In contrast, the current study showed a low priority for taste, aroma, and texture when eating and cooking everyday foods. Nevertheless, our participants valued these factors when dining was part of a social event. Consequently, the current way of food consumption is crucial to their everyday lives.
This attitude towards food reinforces the view that performance creates meaning in daily food consumption (Shove et al. Citation2012). Furthermore, dining with friends and family was often rearranged in favour of training, which aligns with previous findings in athletes (Long et al. Citation2011; Skuland and Ånestad Citation2012). Additionally, in the current study, thoughts about food and eating created inner conflict when the participants tried to display a carefree attitude. Many feel negatively affected by thoughts that might arise from eating what they think is unhealthy. The structure of food consumption affects all areas; planning, shopping, cooking, and preparing lunch boxes, creating connections to meaning. However, the connection to competence becomes conflicting owing to the possible adverse effects of restrained eating or missing out on social interactions.
Several climate-conscious ‘doings and sayings’ were present in the participants’ everyday lives. For example, riding a bike, walking to work, shopping (including clothes), and minimising food waste can contribute to a lower climate impact. Marshall (Citation2016) described climate-conscious consumers as flexible or pragmatic in their relationship with their ideals to avoid conflicts or reach compromises. Our participants have the same mindset, and sometimes choosing a more sustainable option becomes complicated as the compromise on performance becomes too great. One example concerns their high intake of food from animal sources, a sensitive matter that participants feel they must defend in conversations with others from time to time.
The participants had a mean carbon footprint of 2.12-ton CO2e per year compared to the Swedish average of 1.4-ton CO2e (Naturvårdsverket Citation2022). Nonetheless, they motivate continuous meat and dairy consumption for performance, despite the excessive CO2e emissions caused by such foods. Still, they prefer organic products, which appeal to the notion of eating ‘clean’. If organic production is sustainable is still under debate but can be favourable for biodiversity and improved soil and water quality (Seufert and Ramankutty Citation2017).
The two participants with more climate-conscious food consumption did not differ from the rest of the group in their view of food as predominantly fuel. Nevertheless, they included climate considerations as an essential aspect of food consumption. The findings of links and connections to meaning (importance and attitude towards food, performance, and climate consideration) lead to a compelling argument that even high-energy consumers can reduce their climate impact from food while still performing at the desired level. This way of eating, which can be both sufficient for performance and climate consciousness, is in line with suggestions from the EAT-Lancet report (Willett et al. Citation2019) and other research on how to move towards climate-friendly food consumption (Dooren Citation2018; Röös et al. Citation2015). An outline of a potential climate-conscious athletic performance-centred food consumption practice is shown in . Although the authors noted a possible practice, climate considerations failed to create meaning for most participants. Nevertheless, climate consideration could establish connections from competence to material, and links are formed between material and meaning and between competence and meaning but are not strong enough to create connections ().
Figure 5. Climate-conscious food consumption forms links and connections between competence and material but only create links to meaning for some subjects; therefore, no practice can be established, but still shows a possibility for change towards a more climate-conscious food consumption practice.
The participants did not consider the consumption of whey protein problematic from a climate perspective. Whey protein concentrate has a substantial carbon footprint (Bacenetti et al. Citation2018), at the same high level as beef, but was never discussed similarly as red meat. These findings indicate that participants’ competence in more climate-friendly alternatives is deficient concerning protein enrichment. Hence, they focus on the nutritional value and how it supports performance rather than the climate impact of whey protein. If protein intake from animal-based sources could be lowered or replaced by plant-based protein sources (Dooren Citation2018; Röös et al. Citation2015), our participants could substantially reduce their CO2e. Previous research on vegetarian diets’ effect on physical performance showed comparable results to omnivore diets (Craddock et al. Citation2016; Hevia-Larraín et al. Citation2021), encouraging a transition to more plant-based protein sources.
Research on climate considerations in food consumption, focussing on high-energy consumers such as recreational athletes, remains sparse. Further, this research could contribute to the knowledge on motivating athletes to adopt a more plant-based and climate-friendly diet. There is a need to scientifically show that athletes can maintain performance on a plant-based diet that does not have to be exclusively vegetarian to encourage the athletic community to contribute to climate-conscious food consumption. Product development should also be considered to replace whey protein powder in supplementation products. Discussing our group’s food consumption from a broader climate-conscious perspective, our participants exhibited several positive activities such as generally low consumption of commodities other than food and well-organised food purchases and cooking. However, their food consumption needs to be understood, considering other practices to recognise climate-conscious activities.
Strengths and limitations
The female participants in this study reported a low energy intake compared to the estimated energy requirement of 58-86%. This pattern of female CrossFit practitioners reporting low energy intake was previously described by (Gogojewicz et al. Citation2020). Inadequate energy intake can result from the expressed desire to lose weight or maintain a low body weight, but could also be an effect of undereating or underreporting. However, this population has many training and nutritional routines. They are accustomed to keeping diaries for both; this argues that intentional low energy intake is these women’s reason. Another aspect to consider was the small sample size, which resulted in the low validity of the quantitative data. A power calculation was performed for energy intake, macronutrients, and kg Co2e/day. The only variable that has statistical power to detect a 20% difference is energy intake, which requires a sample size of 8 participants. The other variables range from 12 (protein) to 84 (Co2e/day) participants. However, the purpose of the seven-day food records was to support the findings of the interviews; thus, they were considered sufficient. In this study, the authors entered the CO2e of whey protein powder because it was not provided in the RISE climate database. Instead, LCA of whey was found in the literature and added (Bacenetti et al. Citation2018), which provided important information and thus is considered a strength. Evaluating climate considerations using CO2e was based on making the study comparable. The use of CO2e reflects only one aspect of sustainable food consumption and does not address biodiversity, land use, or organic food systems.
Conclusion
The primary purpose of food consumption in this group of recreational athletes is to maintain and improve their athletic performance. Elements that shape their food consumption are time-saving strategies, structured behaviour surrounding food and eating, and a strong focus on performance. The taste, texture, and aroma are of secondary importance. Being part of a CrossFit community affected the participants’ food consumption, and an athletic performance-centred practice was identified, evolving with an increased focus on training. Furthermore, the participants had a substantial carbon footprint due to their high energy intake and the choice of dairy and whey protein as the primary protein sources. However, this group of recreational athletes still demonstrates an awareness of the climate impact of food, such as an openness to using more plant-based protein sources, choosing organic products when affordable, and awareness of food waste. This way of eating shows that it is possible to change food consumption for recreational athletes with high energy requirements to be more climate friendly.
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