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ABSTRACT
Even though inter-state forced displacement is heavily concentrated in the Third World and predominantly constituted of massive migration flows linked to objective and structural socio-economic factors, the protection provided by International Refugee Law remains based on a liberal Euro- and state-centric definition of refugees, culminating in a de facto exclusion of the great majority of the world’s refugees.
This article advocates the need to conceptually challenge the 1951 Convention refugee definition, proposing the Cartagena Declaration as a Third World human rights alternative to it. The delegitimization of the socio-economic refugee sustains and is sustained by the Western liberal and state-centric logic under which International Refugee Law functions. The recognition of socio-economic rights per se as a basis for refugee status under the Cartagena Declaration constitutes a rupture with that dysfunctional logic. Consequently, the Cartagena ‘Spirit’ provides, in theory, a comprehensive and up-to-date human rights refugee protection regime capable of encompassing all types of refugees.
To materialise the discussion, the article critically analyses the Brazilian application of the Cartagena refugee definition to Venezuelan socio-economic refugees. It concludes that the Brazilian approach does not fully materialise the Cartagena ‘Spirit’ radical potential, putting into question the ‘Spirit’ practical feasibility.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Encarnación Gutiérrez Rodríguez, 'The Coloniality of Migration and the “Refugee Crisis”: On the Asylum-Migration Nexus, the Transatlantic White European Settler Colonialism-Migration and Racial Capitalism', Refuge 34, no. 1 (2018): 16-28, http://www.mcrg.ac.in/RLS_Migration/Reading_List/Module_C/24.Rodriguez,%20EG,The%20Coloniality%20of%20Migration.pdf (Last accessed 21 May 2023).
2 UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Migration in 2020 (18 June 2021) https://www.unhcr.org/60b638e37/unhcr-global-trends-2020 (Last accessed 31 May 2023), 2.
3 Eduardo Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America: The Lessons of Pragmatism', International Journal of Refugee Law 3, no. 2 (1991): 185-207, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/3.2.185 (Last accessed 4 May 2023); Seyla Benhabib, 'The End of the 1951 Refugee Convention? Dilemmas of Sovereignty, Territoriality, and Human Rights', Jus Cogens 2, no. 1 (2020): 75-100, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42439-020-00022-1 (Last accessed 6 May 2023), 86.
4 B.S. Chimni, International Refugee Law: A Reader, 2nd ed. (New Delhi: Sage, 2002), 7.
5 James C. Hathaway, 'Reconceiving Refugee Law as Human Rights Protection', Journal of Refugee Studies 4, no. 2 (1991): 113-31, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/4.2.113 (Last accessed 21 April 2023).
6 Isabel Berganza, Cécile Blouin, and Luisa Feline Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional De Violación Masiva De Derechos Humanos De La Definición Ampliada De Cartagena: Hacia Una Aplicación En El Caso Venezolano', Revista chilena de derecho 47, no. 2 (2020): 385-410, https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-34372020000200385 (Last acessed 16 Mar. 2023).
7 Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade, 'Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, Direito Internacional Humanitário e Direito Internacional dos Refugiados: Aproximações ou Convergências', in As Três Vertentes Da Proteção Internacional Dos Direitos Da Pessoa Humana.Direitos Humanos, Direito Humanitário, Direito Dos Refugiados – ICRC (Geneva: ICRC, 2004); Liliana Lyra Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados e Sua Aplicação no Ordenamento (Riode Janeiro: Editora Método, 2007) https://www.acnur.org/portugues/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/O-Direito-Internacional-dos-Refugiados-e-sua-Aplicação-no-Ordenamento-Jur%C3%ADdico-Brasileiro.pdf (Last accessed 6 May 2023).
8 Vincent Chetail, 'Are Refugee Rights Human Rights? An Unorthodox Questioning of the Relations between Refugee Law and Human Rights Law', in Human Rights and Immigration, ed. Ruth Rubio-Marín (Oxford: OUP, 2014); Vincent Chetail, 'Moving Towards an Integrated Approach of Refugee Law and Human Rights Law', in The Oxford Handbook of International Refugee Law, eds. Cathryn Costello, Michelle Foster, and Jane McAdam (Oxford: OUP, 2021).
9 B. S. Chimni, 'The Birth of a 'Discipline': From Refugee to Forced Migration Studies', Journal of Refugee Studies 22, no. 1 (2009): 11-29, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fen051 (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
10 Michelle Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights: Refuge from Deprivation, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 6.
11 Ibid, 6.
12 B. S. Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies: A View from the South', Journal of Refugee Studies 11, no. 4 (1998): 350-74, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/11.4.350-a (Last accessed 4 April 2023).
13 Benhabib, 'The End of the 1951 Refugee Convention?’; Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights; Kate Jastram, 'Economic Harm as a Basis for Refugee Status and the Application of Human Rights Law to the Interpretation of Economic Persecution', in Critical Issues in International Refugee Law: Strategies toward Interpretative Harmony, ed. James C. Simeon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511762864 (Last accessed 4 May 2023); and Lucy Mayblin, Asylum after Empire : Colonial Legacies in the Politics of Asylum Seeking (London: Roman & Littlefield International, 2017)
14 Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s Programme, ‘Comprehensive and Regional Approaches within a Protection Framework No. 80 (XLVII) - 1996', (11 October 1996) https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae68c6e24.html (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
15 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights, 7
16 Mayblin, Asylum after Empire, 31.
17 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’.
18 Idem.
19 See note 16 above.
20 Samuel Berhanu Woldermariam, Amy Maguire, and Jason von Meding, 'Forced Human Displacement, the Third World and International Law: A Twail Perspective', Melbourne Journal of International Law 20, no. 1 (2019): 248-77, http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbJIL/2019/10.html (Last accessed 20 May 2023), 266.
21 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’; Chimni, 'The Birth of a 'Discipline'; and Mayblin, Asylum after Empire.
22 Mayblin, Asylum after Empire; Rodríguez, 'The Coloniality of Migration’.
23 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’; Mayblin, Asylum after Empire.
24 Mayblin, Asylum after Empire, 137.
25 Ibid, 22
26 Ibid.
27 Chimni, 'The Birth of a 'Discipline'; Rodríguez, 'The Coloniality of Migration’; and Woldermariam, Maguire, and Meding, 'Forced Human Displacement’.
28 Woldermariam, Maguire, and Meding, 'Forced Human Displacement’; Rebecca Hamlin, 'The Politics of International Refugee Law and Protection', in The Oxford Handbook of International Refugee Law, eds. Cathryn Costello, Michelle Foster, and Jane McAdam (Oxford: OUP, 2021) https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198848639.003.0006 (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
29 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights.
30 Ibid, 164-166.
31 Ibid, 182.
32 Ibid, 174.
33 International Council on Human Rights Policy, Duties Sans Frontières: Human Rights and Global Social Justice (Geneva: ICHRP, 2003), http://ssrn.com/abstract=1551241 (Last acessed 14 April 2023), 21.
34 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights, 9.
35 International Council on Human Rights Policy, Duties Sans Frontières, 22
36 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights,174.
37 Ibid, 172.
38 Ibid.
39 James C. Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status (Butterworths, 1991).
40 Hamlin, 'The Politics of International Refugee Law’.
41 José H. Fischel Andrade, 'On the Development of the Concept of 'Persecution' in International Refugee Law', III Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional 2(2008): 114 - 136, https://corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r27152.pdf (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
42 Andrade, 'On the Development of the Concept’; Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status.
43 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’, 351; Diana Thomaz, 'What’s in a Category? The Politics of Not Being a Refugee', Social & Legal Studies 27, no. 2 (2017): 200-218, https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663917746488 (Last accessed 14 April 2023), 201.
44 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights; James C. Hathaway and Michelle Foster, The Law of Refugee Status (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
45 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’.
46 UNGA, 'Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees' (1951).
47 Chimni, International Refugee Law, 4, 15.
48 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional'.
49 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
50 Chimni, International Refugee Law, XVI.
51 Woldermariam, Maguire, and Meding, 'Forced Human Displacement’, 19.
52 Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status.
53 Mayblin, Asylum after Empire.
54 See note 52 above.
55 Supra note 45 above.
56 Thomaz, 'What’s in a Category?’.
57 See note 52 above.
58 Andrade, 'On the Development of the Concept’, 122; Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status.
59 See note 49 above.
60 Chetail, 'Moving Towards an Integrated Approach’; Chimni, 'The Birth of a 'Discipline'; James C. Hathaway, 'Reconceiving Refugee Law’.
61 James C. Hathaway, 'A Reconsideration of the Underlying Premise of Refugee Law', Harvard Journal of International Law 31(1990) https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/hilj31&div=13&id=&page = (Last accessed 03 June 2023); Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status.
62 Mayblin, Asylum after Empire; Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status.
63 Mayblin, Asylum after Empire; Woldermariam, Maguire, and Meding, 'Forced Human Displacement’.
64 Thomaz, 'What’s in a Category?’.
65 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
66 Hathaway, 'A Reconsideration of the Underlying Premise of Refugee Law'.
67 See note 65 above.
68 Benhabib, 'The End of the 1951 Refugee Convention?’; Brian Gorlick, '(Mis)Perception of Refugees, State Sovereignty, and the Continuing Challenge of International Protection', in Human Rights and Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons and Migrant Workers : Essays in Memory of Joan Fitzpatrick and Arthur Helton, ed. Anne Bayefsky (Leiden: Brill, 2005) https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004144835.i-599.28 (Last accessed 03 June 2023).
69 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiado.
70 Hathaway, 'A Reconsideration of the Underlying Premise of Refugee Law'.
71 Hathaway and Foster, The Law of Refugee Status.
72 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights.
73 Benhabib, 'The End of the 1951 Refugee Convention?’; Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights.
74 Chetail, 'Are Refugee Rights Human Rights?’; Hathaway and Foster, The Law of Refugee Status.
75 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights; Trindade, 'Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos’.
76 Benhabib, 'The End of the 1951 Refugee Convention?’; Chetail, 'Are Refugee Rights Human Rights?'; Hathaway and Foster, The Law of Refugee Status; Hathaway, 'Reconceiving Refugee Law’.
77 Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights.
78 Hathaway and Foster, The Law of Refugee Status; Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
79 Jastram, 'Economic Harm as a Basis for Refugee Status’, 160; Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights; and Hathaway, 'Reconceiving Refugee Law’.
80 See note 77 above.
81 Andrade, 'On the Development of the Concept’; Foster, International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights; Katharina Röhl, 'Fleeing Violence and Poverty: Non-Refoulement Obligations under the European Convention of Human Rights', in UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper No. 111 (2005) https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ff169d92.html (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
82 Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status.
83 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’.
84 Hamlin, 'The Politics of International Refugee Law’, 99.
85 See note 83 above.
86 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’.
87 Juan Carlos Murillo González, 'El Derecho de Asilo y La Proteccíon De Refugiados en el Continente Americano: Contribuciones y Desarrollos Regionales' in La Protección de Refugiados en las Américas (Quito: ACNUR, 2004) https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/Publicaciones/2012/8340.pdf (Last accessed 14 April 2023); UNHCR, 'Summary Conclusions on the Interpretation of the Extended Refugee Definition in the 1984 Cartagena Declaration', (7 July 2014) https://www.refworld.org/docid/53c52e7d4.html (Last accessed 14 April 2023).
88 Liliana Lyra Jubilut and Rachel de Oliveira Lopes, 'Forced Migration and Latin America: Peculiarities of a Peculiar Region in Refugee Protection', Archiv des Völkerrechts 56, no. 2 (2018): 131–54 https://doi.org/10.1628/avr-2018-0008 (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
89 Marina De Almeida Rosa, 'O encontro do Direito Internacional dos Refugiados com o Sul Global: Uma análise do "conceito sul" de refugiado e de sua não aplicação pelas Nações Unidas', Master Thesis (2019) http://www.repositorio.jesuita.org.br/handle/UNISINOS/8969 (Last accessed 6 May 2023).
90 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’.
91 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’
92 See note 90 above.
93 Diego Acosta Arcarazo and Laura Madrid Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados? La Declaración De Cartagena Y Los Venezolanos En Brasil', Análisis Carolina, no. 9 (2020), https://www.fundacioncarolina.es/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/AC-9.2020.pdf (Last accessed 6 May 2023).
94 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
95 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’.
96 Ibid; Javier Ochoa, 'South America’s Response to the Venezuelan Exodus: A Spirit of Regional Cooperation?', International Journal of Refugee Law 32, no. 3 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eeaa033 (Last accessed 6 May 2023).
97 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’, 203; José H. Fischel Andrade, 'Regional Refugee Regimes: Latin America', in The Oxford Handbook of International Refugee Law, eds. Cathryn Costello, Michelle Foster, and Jane McAdam (Oxford: OUP, 2021) https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198848639.003.18 (Last accessed 20 May 2023), 327.
98 Jubilut and Lopes, 'Forced Migration and Latin America’, 143; Susan Kneebone, 'Comparative Regional Protection Frameworks for Refugees: Norms and Norm Entrepreneurs', The International Journal of Human Rights 20, no. 2 (2016): 153-72, https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2016.1141499 (Last accessed 6 May 2023), 157.
99 Mondelli, as cited in Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’, 390.
100 Jubilut and Lopes, 'Forced Migration and Latin America’.
101 Kneebone, 'Comparative Regional Protection’.
102 Jubilut and Lopes, 'Forced Migration and Latin America’; Liliana Lyra Jubilut, Marcia Vera Espinoza, and Gabriela Mezzanotti, 'The Cartagena Declaration at 35 and Refugee Protection in Latin America', E-international relations (22 Nov. 2019) https://www.e-ir.info/2019/11/22/the-cartagena-declaration-at-35-and-refugee-protection-in-latin-america/ (Last accessed 14 April 2023).
103 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
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105 Jubilut, Espinoza, and Mezzanotti, 'The Cartagena Declaration’.
106 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’, 189.
107 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
108 IACHR, Institucionalidad democrática, estado de derecho y derechos humanos en Venezuela: Informe de país, OEA/Ser.L/V/II. Doc. 209 (31 December 2017), http://www.oas.org/es/cidh/informes/pdfs/venezuela2018-es.pdf (Last accessed 14 April 2023), para. 68.
109 IACtHR, Advisory Opinion OC-21/14: Rights and guarantees of children in the context of migration and/or in need of international protection, (19 August 2014) https://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/opiniones/seriea_21_eng.pdf (Last accessed 14 April 2023), para. 79.
110 IACtHR, Advisory Opinion OC-25/18: The institution of asylum and its recognition as a human right in the inter-american protection system, (30 May 2018) https://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/opiniones/seriea_25_ing.pdf (Last accessed 14 April 2023), para. 132.
111 UNHCR, Summary Conclusions.
112 Colloquium on the International Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama, Cartagena Declaration on Refugees (1984).
113 See note 111 above.
114 Isabel Berganza, Cécile Blouin, and Luisa Feline Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition and Venezuelan Displacement in Latin America', International Migration, no. Special Issue (2020), https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12791 (Last accessed 14 April 2023).
115 Jubilut, Espinoza, and Mezzanotti, 'The Cartagena Declaration’.
116 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’; Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
117 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’; Jubilut, O Direito Internacional os Refugiados; Hamlin, 'The Politics of International Refugee Law’.
118 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’; UNHCR, Summary Conclusions; Andrade, 'Regional Refugee Regimes’.
119 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’; Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’; Ochoa, 'South America’s Response’.
120 Matthew Albert, 'Prima Facie Determination of Refugee Status: An Overview and Its Legal Foundation', in Oxford RSC Working Paper Series No. 55, (2010), https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp55-prima-facie-determination-refugee-status-2010.pdf (Last Accessed 20 May 2023), 9; Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’, 394.
121 Albert, 'Prima Facie Determination’.
122 See note 120 above.
123 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’; Ochoa, 'South America’s Response’.
124 Arboleda, 'Refugee Definition in Africa and Latin America’, 189.
125 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
126 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados, 134.
127 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’.
128 UNHCR, Summary Conclusions.
129 CIREFCA, Principios Y Criterios Para La Protección Y Asistencia a Los refugiados, Repatriados Y Desplazados En América Latina, CIREFCA 89/9 (1989) https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5236df004.pdf (Last Accessed 14 April 2023), para 34.
130 Berganza, Blouin and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
131 González, 'El Derecho de Asilo’.
132 Chimni, 'The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies’.
133 González, 'El Derecho de Asilo’; Rosa, 'O Encontro do Direito Internacional’.
134 Luiz Paulo Teles Ferreira Barreto and Renato Zerbini Ribeiro Leão, 'O Brasil e o Espírito da Declaração de Cartagena', Forced Migration Review 35 Mini Feature: Brazil, no. 35 (2010): 1-2, https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMR35brasil.pdf (Last Accessed 6 May 2023).
135 Vinicius Pureza Cabral and Natalia Cintra de Oliveira Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration on Refugees to Venezuelans in Brazil: An Analysis of the Decision-Making Process by the National Committee for Refugees', Latin American Law Review, no. 5 (2020): 121-37, https://doi.org/10.29263/lar05.2020.06 (Last accessed 6 May 2023).
136 OAS, Preliminary Report on the Venezuelan Migrant and Refugee Crisis in the Region (2019) https://www.oas.org/documents/eng/press/Preliminary-Report-2019-on-Venezuelan-Migrant-and-Refugee-Crisis-in-the-Region.pdf (Last accessed 14 April 2023).
137 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’, 1.
138 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
139 Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’, 127; Jubilut and Lopes, 'Forced Migration and Latin America’, 133.
140 Camila Sombra Muiños Andrade, Camila Marques Gilberto, and Liliana Lyra Jubilut, 'Human Rights in Refugee Protection in Brazil', in Human Rights and the Refugee Definition : Comparative Legal Practice and Theory, eds. Bruce Burson and David James Cantor (Leiden: Brill, 2016), https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004288591_010 (Last Accessed 20 May 2023), 222; Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’.
141 Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’, 127.
142 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
143 See note 141 above.
144 Andrade, Gilberto, and Jubilut, 'Human Rights in Refugee Protection in Brazil', 221.
145 Jubilut, O Direito Internacional dos Refugiados.
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147 Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’, 125.
148 Arcarazo and Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados?’.; Andressa Alves Martino and Julia Bertino Moreira, 'The Brazilian Migration Policy for Venezuelans: From the Temporary Residence Permit to the Refuge “Label” (2017–2019)', REMHU: Revista Interdisciplinar da Mobilidade Humana 28, no. 60 (2020): 151-66, https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-85852503880006009 (Last accessed 06 May 2023); Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’.
149 Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’, 127.
150 Bea Sophia Pielago, 'Uncovering the 5 Major Causes of the Food Crisis in Venezuela', Glocality 3, no. 1 (2020): 4, https://doi.org/10.5334/glo.24 (Last accessed 14 April 2023).
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152 Pielago, 'Uncovering the 5 Major Causes’.
153 IACHR, Institucionalidad democrática, para 405.
154 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’, 7; OHCHR, Violaciones De Los Derechos Humanos En La República Bolivariana De Venezuela: Una Espiral Descendente Que No Parece Tener Fin (01 June 2018) https://www.ohchr.org/es/documents/country-reports/human-rights-violations-bolivarian-republic-venezuela-downward-spiral-no (Last Accessed 14 April 2023), 43-45.
155 UNHCR, Guidance Note on International Protection Considerations for Venezuelans – Update I (May 2019) https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/69883 (Last accessed 14 April 2023), para. 15.
156 OAS, Preliminary Report, 10.
157 IACtHR, Advisory Opinion OC-25/18, para. 408.
158 Ibid, para. 411; OHCHR, Violaciones De Los Derechos Humanos, 50.
159 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'The Cartagena Refugee Definition’; Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
160 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
161 UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Migration in 2020, 18.
162 Luisa Feline Freier and Jean-Pierre Gauci, 'Refugee Rights across Regions: A Comparative Overview of Legislative Good Practices in Latin America and the EU', Refugee Survey Quarterly 39, no. 3 (2020): 321–362 https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdaa011 (Last Accessed 20 May 2023), 57.
163 Arcarazo and Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados?’, 6.
164 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’, 1.
165 CONARE, SEI/MJ - 8757617 - Nota Técnica: Estudo de País de Origem – Venezuela (2019) https://www.justica.gov.br/news/collective-nitf-content-1564080197.57/sei_mj-8757617-estudo-de-pais-de-origem-venezuela.pdf/view (Last Accessed 14 April 2023); Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’, 132.
166 UNHCR, Guidance Note, para. 5.
167 CONARE, SEI/MJ - 8757617 - Nota Técnica, para. 10.1.
168 Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’, 131; Martino and Moreira, 'The Brazilian Migration Policy for Venezuelans’, p. 158.
169 Arcarazo and Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados?’; Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’; João Carlos Jarochinski Silva and Liliana Lyra Jubilut, 'Group Recognition of Venezuelans in Brazil: An Adequate New Model?', Forced Migration Review 65, no. 65 (2020): 43-44, https://www.fmreview.org/recognising-refugees/jubilut-jarochinskisilva (Last accessed 20 May 2023).
170 Jarochinski and Jubilut, 'Group Recognition of Venezuelans in Brazil’.
171 Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’.
172 Arcarazo and Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados?’.
173 See note 171 above.
174 Berganza, Blouin, and Freier, 'El Elemento Situacional’.
175 See note 171 above.
176 Ibid; Martino and Moreira, 'The Brazilian Migration Policy’.
177 See note 171 above.
178 Ibid; Jarochinski and Jubilut, 'Group Recognition of Venezuelans in Brazil’.
179 See note 176 above.
180 Arcarazo and Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados?’.
181 Ibid; Thomaz, 'What’s in a Category?’.
182 Arcarazo and Sartoretto, '¿Migrantes O Refugiados?’; Cabral and Tavares, 'The Application of the Cartagena Declaration’; Martino and Moreira, 'The Brazilian Migration Policy’.
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Heloisa Pinheiro de Castro Simão
Currently a PhD candidate at FGV Direito SP (2023-2027). Heloisa was awarded a Master of Laws (Human Rights Specialism) with distinction from the London School of Economics (2021) and holds a Bachelor of Laws degree from Universidade de São Paulo (2019).