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ABSTRACT
Granting amnesty to perpetrators of gross human rights is becoming a re-emerging phenomenon in Africa. Nigeria is currently witnessing unprecedented threats of violent extremism unleashed by terrorist groups; despite efforts to curb such acts, there has been little or no success. One such counter-terrorism measure has been the grant of amnesty to the Boko-haram terrorist group. Gauging the effectiveness of such a policy is of great importance to the survival of democratic principles. The article explores the Nigerian debate around amnesty. It argues that these debates need to evaluate the substance of the rule of law and ensure that impunity is not entrenched in achieving ‘peace’ without justice. There is a need for the executive to justify, explain and defend decisions on the grant of amnesty. Giving such explanations will allow for the public greater participation in security matters. The grant of amnesty to 'repentant' terrorists has not effectively facilitated law enforcement agencies' disruption of terrorism in Nigeria. Inclusive decision-making process around amnesty must be invoked to have efficient amnesty program in Nigeria and safeguard the rule of law. Public debates on granting amnesty be encouraged, taking into cognisance the consequences of not prosecuting violators of gross human rights abuses.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
2 See, e.g., Peace Versus Justice: Negotiating Forward- And Backward-Looking Outcomes (I. William Zartman & Viktor Kremenyuk eds., Rowman & Littlefield 2005); POST-CONFLICT JUSTICE (M. Cherif Bassiouni ed., Transnational Publishers 2002); Paul R. Williams, ‘The Role of Justice in Peace Negotiations’, in Post-Conflict Justice 115, ed. M. Cherif Bassiouni (Transnational Publishers, 2002); Tove Grete Lie et al., Post-Conflict Justice And Sustainable Peace (World Bank, Post-Conflict Transitions Working Paper No. 5, 2007); Chandra Lekha Sriram, ‘Justice as Peace? Liberal Peacebuilding and Strategies of Transitional Justice’, Global Soc. 21, no. 579 (2007); Christine Bell, Negotiating Justice? Human Rights And Peace Agreements (International Council On Human Rights, 2006); Chandra Lekha Sriram, Confronting Past Human Rights Violations: Justice Vs. Peace In Times Of Transition (Frank Cass, 2004).
3 Max Pensky, ‘Amnesty on Trial: Impunity, Accountability, and the Norms of International Law’, Ethics & Global Politics, 1, no. 1-2 (2008): 1–40, doi:10.3402/egp.v1i1.1816.
4 Ibid.
5 Helena Cobban, Amnesty After Atrocity? Healing Nations after Genocide and War Crimes (Paradigm Publishers, 2007).
6 (The most clear example is that of South Africa, where the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act 34 of 1995 sets up a mechanism to grant a broad amnesty for those who had committed politically motivated crimes during the apartheid regime. See The Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) v. The President of the Republic of South Africa and ors., Case CCT 17/96, (South Africa), 1996 (hereinafter the AZAPO case), para. 22.)
7 Principles of international cooperation in the detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of persons guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, General Assembly Res. 3074 (XXVIII), 3 December 1973, para. 7. Art. 14(2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Res. 217 A (III), 10 December 1948, states that individuals have no right to seek asylum from ‘prosecutions arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.’
8 Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ‘Special Problems of the Duty to Prosecute: Derogation Amnesties, Statutes of Limitations, and Superior Orders’, in Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice, ed. Naomi Roht-Arriaza (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995): 57.
9 R. David, Transition to Clean Government: Amnesty As An Anti-Corruption Measure (2010).
10 M. Chene (2019) The Use of Amnesties for Corruption Offences. U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Chr. Michelsen Institute (U4 Helpdesk Answer).
11 Christopher C. Joyner, ‘Redressing Impunity for Human Rights Violations: The Universtal Declaration and the Search for Accountability’, Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 26, (1997): 591.
12 The Chicago Principles On Post-Conflict Justice (M. Cherif Bassiouni ed., International Human Rights Law Institute 2007), princ. 1.8.
13 R. Perl, Combating Terrorism: The Challenge of Measuring effectiveness. CRS Report for Congress, (2005) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235162144_Combating.
14 Bryan A. Garner (Ed.) (2004) Black’s law dictionary, 8th edn. (New York: Thompson-West, 2004): 93.
15 (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2004).
16 I. O. Albert, ‘Hazy Agenda, Multiple Interests: Stakeholders Engagement with the First Phase of the Niger Delta Amnesty Deal in Nigeria’, Beijing Law Review, 10, (2019): 656–70. https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2019.104037.
17 A. J. Damico, Democracy and the Case for Amnesty. (Gainesville, FL: Florida Presses, 1975).
18 Michael P. Scharf Amnesty, in Encyclopedia of genocide and crimes against humanity. On Amnesty’s Greek history, see Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) chapter 1.
19 Louse Mallinder (2007) Exploring the practices of states in introducing amnesties, Working Paper for Workshop 4, Legal Framework, International conference: building a future on peace and justice, Nuremberg, 25_27.
20 Louis Joinet, ‘The Administration of Justice and the Human Rights of Detainees: Question of the Impunity of Perpetrators of Human Rights Violations (Civil and Political),’ E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20/Rev.1, p 2.
21 T. Legrand, 2014. ‘Banishing the Enemies of All Mankind: the Effectiveness of Proscribing Terrorist Organisations in Australia, Canada, the UK and US’, in Jarvis, L. and Lister, M … . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272819290
22 E.U. Ejeh, I. Bappah, and Y. Dankofa, ‘Nature of Terrorism and Anti- Terrorism Laws in Nigeria’, NAUJILJ 10, no. 1 (2019).
23 Unio D.O, Report on the attempted Bombing of North/West Airlines flight 253,’Christmas Day plot’, 2010. International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism. Retrieved from wwww.port.org/pdf …
24 N. Roht-Arriaza, After Amnesties are Gone: Latin American National Courts and the new Contours of the fight Against Impunity. (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019) https://www.jstor.org/stable/24518322
25 Louise Mallinder, Amnesty, Human Rights And Political Transitions: Bridging The Peace And Justice Divide Hart Publishing, 2008.
26 The Chicago Principles on Post-Conflict Justice (M. Cherif Bassiouni Ed., International Human Rights Law Institute 2007), Princ.
27 S.1 (2) (b) (ii), ibid.
28 S. 1 (2) (b) (iii), ibid.
29 S 1 (2) (iv), ibid.
30 S (2) (c) (i), ibid.
31 S. 1 (2) (c) (ii)-(iii), ibid.
32 S. 1 (2) (d), ibid.
33 M. J. Boyle, ‘Do counterterrorism and counterinsurgency go together?’ International Affairs 86, no. 2 (2010): 333–53.
34 D. Kilcullen, ‘Countering global insurgency.’ Journal of Strategic studies 28, no. 4 (2005): 617.
35 Etan Frisch, ‘Insurgencies are Organizations Too: Organizational Structure and the Effectiveness of Insurgent Strategy’, Peace & Conflict Review 6, no. 1.
36 J. A. Nagl, J. F. Amos, S. Sewall, & D. H. Petraeus, The US Army/Marine Corps counterinsurgencyfield manual (No. 3–24). (University of Chicago Press, 2008).
37 G. Bernsten, Human Intelligence, Counterterrorism, and National Leadership: A Practical Guide. (Washington D.C.: Potomac Books, 2008).
38 Nicolas Johnston, ‘Defining Terrorism and Insurgency: Beyond Morality’, Small World Journal (2018) https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/defining-terrorism-and-insurgency-beyond-morality
39 Mustafa Coşar Ünal, ‘Terrorism versus insurgency: a conceptual analysis’, Crime Law Soc Change (2016) doi:10.1007/s10611-015-9601-7.
40 ibid
41 An example of this is the South African law. Sec 1(1)(xxvi)(4) Protection of Constitutional Democracy Against Terrorist and Related Activities Act No. 33/2004.
42 E.U. Ejeh, I. Bappah, and Y. Dankofa, ‘Proscription of Terrorism in Nigeria: A comparative Legal Study’, Commonwealth Law Bulletin (2019).
43 OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, 1999.
44 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (as amended).
45 Mustafa Coşar Ünal (2016); opp. Cit.
46 Tayo Sola (2007) The Nigerian 2007 Election: A guide for Journalist and Commentators. Africa Programme Briefing Note 07/01. London. Chatham House. P. 4.
47 M. Chukulaka, Boko Haram: The Full Story. (Abuja: The Daily Sun, 2009 August 14).
48 Al Jazeera, Deadly Nigeria clashes spread, 2009-07-27; English.aljazeera.net, 2009. Profile: Boko Haram available from: http://english.aljazeera.net./news/Africa/2009/07729135960235.html.
49 Chukwulaka, op cit.
50 Ebere R Adigbuo, ‘Boko Haram: A Race between Amnesty and Criminal Tribunal’, Historical Research Letter. (2014) www.iiste.org ISSN 2224–3178 (Paper) ISSN 2225–0964 (Online) Vol.13.
51 A. Abolurin, Terrorism, Nigerian and Global Dimensions, (Ibadan: Golden Gems Unique Multi Ventures, 2011).
52 BBC News, (2009, July 31). ‘Nigerian sect head dies in custody’, URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8177451.stm.
54 Ibid.
58 Boko Haram Kills 43 Farm Workers in Borno – Report, The Punch, 28 November 2020.
59 T. Legrand, 2014. ‘Banishing the Enemies of All Mankind: the Effectiveness of Proscribing Terrorist Organisations in Australia, Canada, the UK and US’, in Jarvis, L. and Lister, M … . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272819290.
60 C. Lum, L. W. Kennedy, & A. Sherley, ‘Are Counter-Terrorism Strategies Effective? The Results of the Campbell Systematic Review on Counter-Terrorism Evaluation Research’, Journal of Experimental Criminology, 2, no. 4 (2006): 489–516.
61 D. Marsh, & A. McConnell, ‘Towards a Framework for Establishing Policy Success’, Public administration 88, no.2 (2010): 564–83.
62 Lum, ‘Are Counter-Terrorism Strategies Effective?’
63 Marsh and McConnell, ‘Towards a Framework for Establishing Policy Success’, 582.
64 Legrand, ‘Banishing the Enemies of All Mankind’.
65 Amnesty: a blessing in disguise? Making good use of an important mechanism in peace processes Pierre Hazan 2020 – Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue.
66 Kasaija Phillips Apuuli (2005) Amnesty and International Law: the case of the Lord’s Resistance Insurgents in Northern Uganda. Refugee law Center Publication.
67 ‘Communiqué of Traditional and Religious Leaders, Civil Society and other Organizations concerning Amnesty,’ June 2012. Available at, http://www.enoughproject.org/files/Communique%20Amnesty%20Act%20June%202012.pdf.
68 Opp cit.
69 There have been a comparatively large number of surveys of opinions on post-conflict justice modalities in Uganda. See e.g. OHCHR, Making Peace Our Own: Victims' Perceptions Of Accountability, Reconciliation And Transitional Justice In Northern Uganda (OHCHR 2007); Phil Clark, Recreating Tradition: Assessing Community-Based Transitional Justice in Northern Uganda, The Lord's Resistance Army: War, Peace And Reconciliation, eds. Tim Allen & Koen Vlassenroot (James Currey Publishers, 2007); Justice And Reconciliation Project, The Cooling Of Hearts: Community Truth-Telling In Acholi-Land (Liu Institute for Global Issues; Gulu District NGO Forum, 2007); Lucy Hovil and Zachary Lomo, Whose Justice? Perceptions of Uganda’s Amnesty Act 2000: The Potential for Conflict Resolution and Long-Term Reconciliation (Refugee Law Project, Working Paper No. 15, 2005); Phuong Pham Et Al., Forgotten Voices: A Population-Based Survey of Attitudes About Peace And Justice In Northern Uganda (ICTJ 2005).
70 Erin K. Baines, ‘The Haunting of Alice: Local Approaches to Justice and Reconciliation in Northern Uganda’, INT'L J. Transitional Justice 1, no. 97 (2007).
71 Amnesty Act, art. 1 (2000) (Uganda).
72 Conciliation Resources and Quaker Peace, ‘Coming Home – Understanding why commanders of the Lord’s Resistance Army choose to return to a civilian life,’ 2006. Available at, http://www.c-r.org/sites/c-r.org/files/ComingHome_200605_ENG.pdf.
73 For a discussion of apartheid and its legacy, See South African Truth And Reconciliation Commission Report, vol. 1, ch. 2, ‘Historical Context;’ Sriram, supra note 2; Richard A. Wilson, Justice and Legitimacy in the South African Transition, The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice In Democratizing Societies, eds. Alexandra Barahona De Brito et al. (Oxford University Press, 2001).
74 Raylene Keightley, Political Offences and Indemnity in South Africa, 9 S. AFR. J. HUM. RTS. 334 (1993); Sarkin, supra note 4.
75 Alex Boraine, Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: The Third Way, Truth V. Justice: The Morality of Truth Commissions, 144, eds. Robert I. Rotberg & Dennis Thompson (Princeton University Press, 2000).
76 Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, § 18 (1995).
77 See Generally, Establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Submission to the Minister of Justice for South Africa, (Johannesburg, 1994); Graeme Simpson and Paul Van Zyl, ‘South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission,’ Temps Moderne. No. 585, (1995); and Graeme Simpson and Paul Van Zyl, ‘Witch-hunt or Whitewash?: Problems of Justice in Transition in South Africa,’ Center for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation Occassional Paper, (Johannesburg, 1997).
78 See Graeme Simpson, ‘Blanket Amnesty Poses a Threat to Reconciliation’, Business Day. 22/12/1993.
79 Sarkin & Erin Daly, ‘Too Many Questions, Too Few Answers: Reconciliation in Transitional Societies’, COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV. 35, (2004): 661.
80 Nkosinathi Biko, Amnesty and Denial, Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reflections On The Truth And Reconciliation Commission Of South Africa, eds. Charles Villa-Vicencio & Wilhelm Verwoerd, (Zed Books, 2000).
81 Mariette le Roux, South Africa to Consider Pardons for Apartheid-Era Crimes, (AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, Nov. 21, 2007); Boyd Webb, Mbeki to Weigh up Criteria for Pardons, (CAPE ARGUS, Apr. 22, 2008).
82 Ibid.
83 R. Nagy, ‘Violence, Amnesty and Transitional Law: ‘Private Actand Public’ Truth in South Afric’, African Journal of Legal Studies. 1, (2014).
84 Jamestown Foundation, ‘No End in Sight: Violence in the Niger Delta and Gulf of Guinea’, Terrorism Monitor 11, no. 5, (March 8, 2013).
85 R. Ako, ‘Nigeria’s Land Use Act: An Anti-Thesis to Environmental Justice’, Journal of African Law 53, no. 2 (2009): 289–304; C. Obi, ‘Globalization and Local Resistance: The Case of the Ogoni versus Shell’ New Political Economy 21, (1997): 137–48; and E. Osaghae, ‘The Ogoni Uprising: Oil Politics, Minority Agitation and the Future of the Nigerian State’ African Affairs 94, no. 376 (1995): 325–44.
86 Lysias Dodd Gilbert, ‘Youth Militancy, Amnesty, and Security in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria,’ in Victor Ojakorotu and Lysias Dodd Gilbert, eds., Checkmating the Resurgence of Oil Violence in the Niger Delta of Nigeria, http://www.iags.org/Niger_Delta_book.pdf: 47:66.
87 R. Ako, ‘The Struggle for Resource Control and Violence in the Niger Delta’, in Oil and Insurgency in the Niger Delta: Managing the Complex Politics of Petro-Violence, eds. Obi and S. Rustad (London: Zed Books, 2011), 46.
88 C. Obi and S. Rustad (eds.) Oil and Insurgency in the Niger Delta: Managing the Complex Politics of Petro-Violence (London: Zed Books, 2011).
89 R. Ako and O. Omiunu, ‘Amnesty in the Niger Delta: Vertical Movement towards Self-Determination or Lateral Policy Shift?’, Afe Babalola University: Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, (2013): 86–99.
90 O. B. Saheed, ‘Kidnapping in Pre- and Post-Niger Delta Amnesty’, International Journal of Peace and Conflict Studies, 3, (2016): 63–77.
91 Oscar Edoror Ubhenin, ‘The Federal Government’s Amnesty Programme in the Niger-Delta: An Appraisal,’ Yonetim Bilimleri Degrisi, 11, no. 21, (2013): 179–2013, http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/46280.
92 Ibid.
93 ‘Jonathan Sets up Committee on Granting Amnesty to Boko Haram,’ Kabiru Tanimu Turaki (SAN) Official Website, October 16, 2017, kabirutanimuturaki.org/jonathan-sets-committee-granting-amnesty-boko-haram see also Talatu Usman. ‘Boko Haram Amnesty Committee: Jonathan Approves Inclusion of New Member.’ Premium Times Nigeria, April 23, 2013, www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/130909-boko-haram-amnesty-committee-jonathan-approves-inclusion-of-new-member.html, and Alexis Okeowo, ‘Terror and Amnesty in Nigeria,’ The New Yorker, June 18, 2017, www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/terror-and-amnesty-in-nigeria.
94 Roland Oliphant, ‘More than 100 Girls Feared Kidnapped after Boko Haram Storms School,’ The Telegraph, February 22, 2018, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/02/21/100-nigerian-girls-feared-missing-boko-haram-storms-school/
95 ‘More Activity but Fewer Fatalities Linked to African Militant Islamist Groups in 2017,’ Africa Center for Strategic Studies, January 26, 2018, https://africacenter.org/spotlight/activity-fewer-fatalities-linked-african-militant-islamist-groups-2017/.
97 Michael Nwankpa, ‘The Politics of Amnesty in Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis of the Boko Haram and Niger Delta Insurgencies,’ Journal of Terrorism Research, Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence, University of St Andrews, (10 Feb. 2014), cvir.st-andrews.ac.uk/articles/10.15664/jtr.830/. see also http://www.osapnd.gov.ng/presidential-amnesty-programme/
99 https://guardian.ng/news/crisis-as-stakeholders-reject-amnesty-for-repentant-boko-haram-terrorist/
100 https://punchng.com/repentant-terrorist-to-enjoy-foreign-education-senate-bill/ see also ‘Nigerian Govt Promises to De-Radicalise,’ Nigeria Today, August 22, 2017, http://www.nigeriatoday.ng/2017/08/nigerian-govt-promises-to-de-radicalise-repentant-boko-haram-members/
101 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Article 7.
102 Ibid., Article 8.
103 Op cit.
104 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Article 86.
105 Idayat Hassan and Benson Olugbuo, ‘The Justice versus Reconciliation Dichotomy in the Struggle Against Gross Human Rights Violations: The Nigerian Experience,’ Africa Development 40, no. 2 (2015): 123–42.
106 Idayat Hassan, ‘What Is Justice? Exploring the Need for Accountability in the Boko Haram Insurgency’, Harvard Human Rights Journal 29, (Spring 2016), http://harvardhrj.com/what-is-justice-exploring-the-need-for-accountability-in-the-boko-haram-insurgency/.
107 V.F. Brown, ‘In Nigeria We Don’t Want Them Back’ Amnesty, Defectors Programs, Leniency Measures, Informal Reconciliation, and Punitive Responses to Boko Haram. Institute for Integrated Transitions, (2018) https://www.brookings.edu/research/in-nigeria-we-dont-want-them-back/
108 https://guardian.ng/news/crisis-as-stakeholders-reject-amnesty-for-repentant-boko-haram-terrorist/
109 Brown, ‘In Nigeria We Don’t Want Them Back’.
110 ‘Nigeria: Boko Haram Militants Offered Olive Branch by Army,’ BBC.com, April 7, 2016
111 V.F. Brown, ‘In Nigeria, We Don’t Want Them Back’, Amnesty, Defectors’ Programs, Leniency Measures, Informal Reconciliation, and Punitive Responses to Boko Haram. The Limits of Punishment. Transitional Justice and Violent Extremism, (2018).
112 Ibid.
113 ‘Boko Haram Statement,’ Daily Trust, April 25, 2011.
114 Idayat Hassan, ‘What Is Justice? Exploring the Need for Accountability in the Boko Haram Insurgency,’ Harvard Human Rights Journal, 29, Spring 2016, http://harvardhrj.com/what-is-justice-exploring-the-need-for-accountability-in-the-boko-haram-insurgency.
115 Azanian Peoples Organization (AZPO) and Others v. President of the Republic of South Africa and Others (1996) BCLR 1015 (4) SA 672.
116 IBID.
117 Section.
118 As is often the case, accused persons will still argue that trials for serious violations of human rights, even at the level of international criminal courts, are motivated by political factors rather than by legal considerations.
119 R. Teitel, ‘Transitional Jurisprudence: The Role of Law in Political Transformation’, Yale Law Journal 106, no. 7 (1997): 2009, esp. p. 2037.
120 Ebere Adigbuo, ‘Boko Haram: A Race between Amnesty and Criminal Tribunal’, Historical Research Letter 13, (2014): Retrieved from www.Iiste.org.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Emelda Undiandeye Ejeh
Emelda Undiandeye Ejeh is a Barrister and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria haven been called to the Nigerian Bar in the year 2012. She holds her LLB (University of Maiduguri), M.A Law, MPhil Law (Ahmadu Bello University), BL, (Lagos). Ejeh is currently a private Legal Practitioner whose research interest includes Counter Terrorism Law, human rights, and International law. She has authored and co-authored several articles on Security, Justice and Peace. Owing to her love for Humanity, she volunteers as a Humanitarian aid worker in Borno State of Nigeria which has in recent years been bedevilled by Boko Harm insurgency.
Ebunoluwa Popoola
Ebunoluwa Popoola is the holder of a PhD in Law, with specialisation in Environmental Law, which she obtained from the Ahmadu Bello University in January 2017. She is a recipient of the SSRC/Next Generation Social Sciences in Africa Dissertation Research Fellowship (which funded her PhD research in Nigeria and South Africa). She graduated at the top of her undergraduate class with a CGPA of 4.33 and was awarded the Dean's Prize (Best Graduating Student in Faculty of Law, Ahmadu Bello University) 2000/2001 session. Ebunoluwa obtained the Qualifying Certificate in Second Class Upper Division from the Nigerian Law School and was called to the Nigerian Bar in 2003. She obtained her LLM in 2008. Ebun has taught law courses at the University level, including at Ahmadu Bello University (Lecturer II, Part time 2009-2012) and Bingham University, Karu. She served as Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Law, Bingham University (2019-2021). Mrs. Popoola has a passion for teaching, research and mentoring future leaders.