Landscapes of Agricultural Expansion in the Estuaries of the Basque Coast (Sixteenth-Nineteenth Centuries)

ABSTRACT

Land reclamation is the process of creating new land from regularly flooded surfaces. This paper explores the role of land reclamation on the historical transformation of estuarine landscapes in the Basque coast (N Spain & SW France) during the Early Modern period (sixteenth-nineteenth centuries). Documentary sources, historical cartography, and field survey are combined to document the main social practices that have shaped polder-like landscapes. Results show that land reclamation has been the driving factor of landscape transformation in the studied areas during the Early Modern period. These processes can be related to a general trend of wetland colonisation across the Atlantic regions of Europe, with colossal social, economic and environmental repercussions. Many material traces of these transformations still exist on the ground, forming highly anthropized cultural landscapes. However, the implementation of wetland restoration projects compromises their preservation, evidencing the need for an accurate documentation of their formation and evolution.

KEYWORDS:

• Landscape
• wetland
• land reclamation
• drainage
• polder
• flood banks
• drainage
• commons

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Juan Carlos Mora and Amagoia Piá (Municipal Archive of Hondarribia), Sagrario Arrizabalaga (Municipal Archive of Irun), Marian Altuna, Ander Morón and Nerea Sarasola (Municipality of Usurbil), Arantza Alonso (Municipal Archive of Orio), Manex Argoitia, Xabier Azkue and Miriam Romatet (Municipality of Zumaia), Fernando Arzallus (Municipality of Zestoa), Mertxe Urteaga (Provincial Government of Gipuzkoa), Maite Izquierdo (Basque Government), Jaime Frigola and Marc Cerdà (University of Barcelona), Anna Maria Stagno (University of Genoa), Alain Champagne and Aurélien Woifflard (University of Pau and Pays de l’Adour), Ane Rekarte, Blanca Sorzabalbere, Iñaki Narbarte, Jon Iturribarria, Lourdes Odriozola, Olatz Irazusta, Pedro Sánchez-Blanco, Rafael González, Saioa González and Xuban Zubiria, for the valuable support provided to achieve this work in a very difficult context marked by the covid-19 crisis in 2020. Two anonymous reviewers are also acknowledged for their valuable comments that helped to highly improve the final text.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/platform/knowledge_base/143_atlantic_region_en.htm (consulted: 03/04/2021).

2 Bidasoa, ES2120018 & FR7200774; Oria, ES2120010; Urdaibai, ES2130007; Urola, ES2120004: https://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats/10005; https://www.ingurumena.ejgv.euskadi.eus/r49-zecagua/es (consulted: 03/04/2021).

3 https://geoparkea.eus (consulted: 03/04/2021).

4 https://ramsar.org (consulted: 03/04/2021).

5 https://www.euskadi.eus/urdaibai (consulted: 03/04/2021).

6 www.geo.euskadi.eus (consulted: 17/02/2021).

7 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia, B/1/I/2/1 (1203).

8 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia, AMH, C/5/I/10/7 (1500). Municipal Archive of Irun, C/5/I/16 (1766).

9 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia, E/6/VI/4/2 (1509-1511).

10 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: C/5/I/10/7 (1500).

11 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 3/0289:1r-v (1517); 3/0327:34r-36v (1541); 3/0314:59r-60v (1544); 3/0323:7r-9v (1547); 3/0323:10r-11v (1547).

12 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 3/0335:7r-8v (1546). Municipal Archive of Irun: C/05/I/021 (1596); Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/002:245v (1690); A/01/003:076r (1701); A/01/006:128v (1710); A/01/017:036r (1761).

13 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: E/6/VI/4/2 (1609).

14 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: C/5/I/10/7 (1499); Minutes of the City Council, 14075:39r (1531); 14076:40v (1531); 14083:56v (1531); 14093:69r-v (1531); 14094:70r-v (1531); 14120:7v-8r (1532); 15104-89r (1541). The early modern tide mills of Santa Engrazia (Hondarribia) and Errotaberria (Irun) and the forgery of Urdanibia (Irun) have been declared Archaeological Areas (Official Gazette of the Basque Country, 30/10/1997). The fishing weir of Elorregi (Irun) has been radiocarbon dated in the 18th century (Alberdi Lonbide, 2020).

15 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: E/6/VI/4/1:22v-25r (1299); B/1/1/1/13 (1489).

16 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: B/1/1/1/13 (1489).

17 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 19740 (1608); 19053 (1609); 19064 (1609).

18 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 20008 (1626).

19 Municipal Archive of Irun: C/05/I/025/005 (1629).

20 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: C/5/I/6/5 (1629); C/5/I/3/1 (1652); C/5/I/6/1 (1701); C/5/I/4/1 (1710); C/5/I/8/1 (1712-1734). Municipal Archive of Irun: C/05/I/009/02 (1636); C/05/I/009/03 (1680); C/05/I/021 (1702); C/05/I/009/01 (1710); C/05/I/010/01 (1712); Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/002:114r (1679); A/01/003:033v (1700); A/01/005:124v (1710).

21 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/001:074r (1652).

22 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/002:060v (1673).

23 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/002:092v (1678); A/01/002:268r (1693); A/01/003:003v (1694).

24 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 3/617:160r-162r (1693); 3/618:216r-218r (1693); 3/1568:73r-74v (1693); Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/002:275r (1693); A/01/003:003v (1694); A/01/003:015v (1696); A/01/003:012r (1696)

25 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: E/6/VI/8/1 (1667).

26 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/004:122v (1708); E/8/I/11 (1718).

27 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/004:149r (1708); A/01/005:018v (1709); A/01/005:019v (1709); A/01/005:153r (1711); A/01/010:014r (1730); A/01/015:096v (1748); A/01/016:034v (1751); A/01/016:196r (1757).

28 Municipal Archive of Irun: C/05/I/010/01 (1712); C/05/I/011/04 (1762).ç

29 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/005:124v (1710); A/01/005:161r (1711); A/01/005:166r (1711); A/01/005:193r (1712); A/01/005:201v (1712); A/01/005:200r (1712); A/01/005:225v (1713).

30 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 24241 (1751); 25527 (1772); 25528 (1772); 25530 (1772).

31 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 13014 (1778); 13146 (1782); 13151 (1782); 13291 (1784); 13316 (1784); 6806 (1800).

32 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 24239 (1751); 25132 (1765); 12903 (1774).

33 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 25139 (1766); 25140 (1766); 25142 (1766); 25527 (1772); 25530 (1772); 12903 (1774); 13127 (1781); 13186 (1782); 13906 (1797); 13247 (1783).

34 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 24494 (1756); 25137 (1766).

35 Geographic Service of the Spanish Army: MP/249.

36 Geographic Service of the Spanish Army: MP/255.

37 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 24476 (1756); 24495 (1756); 24694 (1758); 25052 (1764); 25230 (1767); 12783 (1776); 12841 (1776); 12997 (1778); 13314 (1784); 13346 (1785); 1344 (1787); 13445 (1787); 7186 (1807).

38 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 12998 (1778); 13204 (1783); 13262 (1784); 13884 (1796).

39 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 12847 (1776); 12848 (1776); 12993 (1778); 12999 (1778); 13486 (1788).

40 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 12775 (1776); 12783 (1776); 12785 (1776); 13312 (1784); 13350 (1785); 13421 (1787); 13423 (1787); 13609 (1790); 14034 (1799); 14036 (1799); 6831 (1801).

41 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 12842 (1776); 13167 (1782); 13200 (1783); 13336 (1785).

42 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: B/1/I/2/90 (1669-1765); C/5/I/4/3 (1761-1767).

43 Archive of the Royal Chancery of Valladolid: C/3332-8 (1764). Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: C/5/I/6/1 (1765).

44 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, 01/023:066r (1771); C/05/I/011/04 (1780); C/05/I/010/02 (1791).

45 Municipal Archive of Irun: C/05/I/010/02 (1800).

46 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 25399 (1770).

47 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 12898 (1774); C/5/I/4/2 (1775).

48 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 12768 (1775); Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/026:038v (1775).

49 Municipal Archive of Irun: C/05/I/010/02 (1777).

50 General Archive of Gipuzkoa: JDIM/17/80 (1817).

51 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 8195 (1832); 8213 (1833).

52 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 8326 (1835); 8358 (1837); 9118 (1839); 9689 (1843).

53 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, C/5/II/1/3 (1830); 9275 (1840); 9295 (1840); 9300 (1840); 9566 (1841); 9570 (1841).

54 Municipal Archive of Hondarribia: Minutes of the City Council, 9590 (1841); 9689 (1843); 9693 (1843); 9923 (1847); 10114 (1850); 10053 (1849); C/4/9/1 (1850).

55 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/095:036r (1870); A/01/095:279r-v (1874); A/01/096:087v (1875); A/01/096:138r (1876); A/01/096:141r (1876); A/01/097:020r-v (1877).

56 Municipal Archive of Irun: B/04/I/002/09 (1884).

57 Municipal Archive of Irun: ADM/6517/12 (1936).

58 Municipal Archive of Irun: Minutes of the Town Council, A/01/186:130v (1948).

59 The original foundation chart has not been conserved, but it is reproduced by Gorosabel (1899-1901).

60 Municipal Archive of Orio, n/s (1379).

61 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa, 3/1779, 193r-194r (1550). The early modern tide mill of Marierrota (Orio), Lasao and Errotaberri (Usurbil), the forgeries of Saria and Zutegi (Usurbil) and the shipyards of Mapil (Usurbil) have been declared Archaeological Areas (Official Gazette of the Basque Country, 30/10/1997; 13/01/1998).

62 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa, 3/2712 (1580), 46v-47v.

63 Archive of the Royal Collegiate Church of Roncesvalles: 2/12 (1518); 2/21 (1573).

64 Archive of the Royal Collegiate Church of Roncesvalles: 2/50 (1693).

65 General Archive of Gipuzkoa: COECI3638 (1758).

66 Archive of the Royal Collegiate Church of Roncesvalles: 2/66 (1805); 2/67 (1806); 2/68 (1806); 2/69 (1806). General Archive of Gipuzkoa: COLCI4638 (1806).

67 Archive of the Royal Collegiate Church of Roncesvalles: 2/70 (1806).

68 Archive of the Royal Collegiate Church of Roncesvalles: 2/71 (1807); 2/74 (1818).

69 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 3/1957:260r (1810); 2/1441:906r (1810); 2/1446:140r (1814); 2/1446:208r-212r (1815). General Archive of Gipuzkoa: JDIM/17/80 (1817).

70 General Archive of Gipuzkoa: COECI5746 (1829). Municipal Archive of Usurbil: Minutes of the Town Council, 1924-1928:52-53; 1928-1931:21v.

71 Spanish Official Gazette, 852 (3/5/1855).

72 Contemporary Archive of Navarre: 2–737 (1867); 2–774 (1868); 2–776 (1868).

73 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 16–01 (1292).

74 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 16–02 (1344).

75 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 55–01 (1347).

76 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 61:01 (1516).

77 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3289; 2/3295; 2/3316; (Odriozola 2000, 153).

78 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 67/01 (1610); 67/02:301r (1684). The farmhouses Dornutegi and Mantzizidor of Oikia contain architectural elements related to early modern mills and have been declared Archaeological Areas (Official Gazette of the Basque Country, 30/10/1997).

79 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 56/01 (1585); Minutes of the Town Council, 67/01 (1585); 67/01 (1610), 67/02:179r-179v (1680); 67/2:185r-186r (1680).

80 Municipal Archive of Segura: E/6/IV/1/2 (1340-1379). Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 55–01 (1347).

81 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 68:241v-242v (1709).

82 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 69:129v (1782).

83 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3568 (1792).

84 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3568 (1794).

85 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 70/01 (1800).

86 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3569 (n.d.); 2/3571 (n.d.).

87 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3568 (1793). Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 71/14:w.f. (1816); 71/5:40r-v (1816).

88 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3569 (1818).

89 Archive of Historical Protocols of Gipuzkoa: 2/3571 (1820).

90 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: 66 (1850-1900). Untzi Museoa [Naval Museum of San Sebastian]: E-55-29 (1888).

91 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 318:150r-v (1899); 318:151v-152r (1899); 318:146r-v (1899).

92 Municipal Archive of Zumaia: Minutes of the Town Council, 363:74r (1907); 322:337 (1907); 322:390 (1907); 322:401 (1907); 322:406 (1907); 322:506 (1907); 323:6v (1907); 323:8r-v (1907); 323:59v (1907).

93 Historical Archive of Biscay: AJ00022/008 (1366).

94 Historical Archive of Biscay: N0358/0373 (1571); N0625/0042 (1583); N0365/0492 (1599); JTB0300/087 (1627); JTB0232/003 (1723); BUSTURIA 0068/008/017 (1741); JTB0308/030 (1750); N0056/0003 (1767); JTB0439/013 (1809); N0058/0017 (1865). The tide mills of Errotabarri, Errotatxu (Gautegiz Arteaga) and Mallukitza (Murueta) have been declared Archaeological Areas (Official Gazette of the Basque Country, 04/06/1997; 13/06/1997).

95 Private archive of the owner (1881).

96 Historical Archive of Biscay: JTB0281/066 (1575); N0361/0490 (1582); JTB0281/192 (1586); N0363/0050 (1590); N0365/0300 (1596); N0365/0813 (1600); N0024/0103 (1603); JTB0450/020 (1628); JTB0602/060 (1638); N0354/0217 (1641); N0354/0342 (1642).

97 Historical Archive of Biscay: N0032/0115 (1717); N0058/0017 (1773); JTB0470/001 (1807).

98 Historical Archive of Biscay: JTB0409/008 (1800).

99 Historical Archive of Biscay: JTB0609/009 (1803).

100 Historical Archive of Biscay: BUSTURIA/0062/015/013 (1830).

101 Historical Archive of Biscay: BUSTURIA/0050/023 (1841).

102 Historical Archive of Biscay: BUSTURIA/0062/015/035 (1855).

103 Historical Archive of Biscay: JTB0518/007 (1841); AR00087/011 (1842); AR00087/012 (1842).

104 Historical Archive of Biscay: AR02494/024 (1879).

105 Historical Archive of Biscay: AR00023/035 (1841).

106 Historical Archive of Biscay: AR00094/004 (1856).

107 Historical Archive of Biscay: AR00094/001 (1849-1857).

Additional information

Funding

The research presented in this paper was supported by the Basque Government’s funding for the protection of Basque Cultural Heritage in the period 2019–2020 (009-KOI-2019). The works have been developed by the Research Group on Medieval Archaeology, Heritagisation and Cultural Landscapes (Basque Government, IT1193-19 and IT 1442-22, Research project PID2020-112506GB-C41). Josu Narbarte has been granted a Margarita Salas Postdoctoral Fellowship at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), financed by the European Union – Next Generation EU funds.