Unequal or unavailable: gender, leisure and quality of life of refugees in Turkey

ABSTRACT

Leisure has proved to be a significant contributor to quality of life (QOL). In the refugee context, however, a literature review shows a gap in understanding refugees’ perceived availability and leisure contribution to QOL. Moreover, there are differences between men’s and women’s perceptions of leisure participation and availability. This study explored the differences between men and women refugees’ leisure participation as well as gender differences in perceived QOL among the refugee population in Turkey. A sample of 203 refugees completed a multi-language online survey. Refugees’ perceptions of different dimensions of leisure (i.e. active, passive, and social) and QOL (i.e. physical, psychological, social, and environmental) were compared across genders. Results revealed a significant difference between the psychological QOL of men and women. Neither leisure participation nor leisure availability showed significant differences between men and women. Both groups reported relatively poor availability of leisure. Their participation level was also reported below par.

KEYWORDS:

• Refugee
• leisure
• quality of life
• gender differences

Introduction

Several factors, including war, human rights violations, persecution, economic hardship, and climate crises, force 83 million people to leave their homes (UNHCR, 2022). Among them, 27 million are refugees who are seeking refuge abroad. Most refugees, 72%, are hosted in neighbouring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, and Egypt. Turkey is a forefront country accommodating nearly 4 million refugees. However, Turkey’s asylum policy operates on a two-tier system, distinguishing between European citizens eligible for refugee status and non-European nationals subject to assessment for potential resettlement in a third country. In the interim, non-European nationals are granted temporary asylum within Turkey, as regulated by the Law on Foreigners and International Protection (Memisoglu & Ilgit, 2017). This uncertainty and temporary situation pose additional challenges for refugees, impacting their health and experiences. Many refugees intend to settle in urban areas to access social services, healthcare, employment, and housing services. However, opportunities in cities with high population densities are already limited (İçduygu & Şimşek, 2016). Consequently, refugees face pressure to relocate to rural or suburban areas where competition with young Turks migrating to urban areas is less intense (Şimşek, 2020). These circumstances, combined with the stressful and traumatic experiences during displacement, significantly impact refugees’ physical, emotional, and geographical QOL and general well-being.

QOL is a complex term to be defined. This multidimensional concept was determined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and has been useful in multicultural contexts (Iwasaki, 2007). The QOL assessment was further constructed by the WHO to evaluate individuals’ perceptions of their life as well as their expectations and goals affected by four dimensions; physical, psychological, social, and environmental (Gagliardi et al., 2021; The WHOQOL Group, 1995). Among these domains, leisure activities were identified to be invaluable contributors to QOL (Ugolotti & Caudwell, 2021). Physical activity and leisure engagement create a sense of purpose, positive self-image, and social connectedness, essential components of overall QOL (Gill et al., 2017). Leisure activities reduce stress, enhance mood, and promote physical health (Zawadzki et al., 2015). Moreover, leisure activities enhance self-efficacy and self-esteem by providing opportunities for personal growth and skill development (Benitez-Sillero et al., 2023). However, leisure rights for people in vulnerable situations with temporary status are overlooked (Altuntaş et al., 2021). While basic needs like shelter, food, and healthcare are prioritized, policies and guidelines for leisure activities are unclear (Subasi, 2021). In addition, leisure is intertwined with subjectivity, marginality, asylum policies, and identity markers, including gender, race, age, sexuality, ethnicity, and physical ability (Ugolotti & Caudwell, 2021). Identity markers, along with power structures such as racism and xenophobia, profoundly impact people’s desires, meanings and experiences, especially during displacement (Mayblin, 2019). Therefore, the availability of leisure to refugees is limited; in particular, women refugees have generally been disadvantaged regarding their overall social power (Rueschemeyer, 2012). Previous studies accentuate on multidimensional difficulties women refugees experience as the result of refugee identity and the gender roles imposed by a patriarchal system (Subasi, 2021; Tarkó & Benkő, 2019). They face limitations in terms of language barriers, which are further amplified by cultural constraints in Turkey (Koca et al., 2009; Schweitzer et al., 2018). These constraints hinder their access to education (considering leisure as non-formal education; Subasi, 2021), contrasting the opportunities available to their male counterparts (Yücel et al., 2018). Therefore, exploring gender differences related to leisure and QOL is warranted. In this research, I explored the differences between men and women across the dimensions of QOL and their participation in leisure activities as well as leisure availability. In the sample of this study, only one person reported their gender as non-binary. Therefore, a binary approach was used to analyze the data. This research hypothesizes that there is a significant difference between men’s and women’s QOL scores, leisure participation, and availability of leisure. Recent studies have addressed the relationship between leisure and forced displacement and have revealed that leisure experiences among this group are different; however, more research is needed in this area.

Methods

I employed an online survey to obtain the target population’s subjective reports of their QOL and their participation in leisure as well as availability of leisure. The questionnaire incorporated four dimensions of QOL measured via 26 questions: overall QOL (2 items), physical (7 items), psychological (6 items), social (3 items), and environmental (8 items). These items were developed and validated by the World Health Organization to be applicable in diverse cultural contexts (Gagliardi et al., 2021; The WHOQOL Group, 1995). In addition, the questionnaire of this study included leisure items classified into social, active, and passive activities borrowed from Statistics Canada’s list of activities (Table 1). Leisure items also were modified to be applicable within the cultural settings of this study. The questionnaire was developed in English and was translated into Arabic and Farsi, the most commonly spoken languages in the region among refugees. I utilized Brislin’s back-translation method to ensure that translations were valid and accurate (Brislin, 1970). This method employs “two bilinguals, one translating from the source to the target language, the second blindly translating back from the target to the source” (Brislin, 1970). To confirm the face validity of items, the survey was sent to scholars and practitioners with leisure, migration, and QOL expertise to review items. Then 20 refugees in Turkey were invited to participate in a pilot test to verify the readability and relevance of the questionnaire prior to distribution of the survey. I finally checked the scale by calculating Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients. Data were collected in two major refugee-accepting cities in Turkey, Denizli and Afyonkarahisar, from March to September 2020. All the individuals who participated in this study were asylum seekers 18 years or older and had either submitted their application to the UNHCR office in Turkey or had been granted refugee status by the organization. A convenience sampling method was used to collect data, meaning participants who were accessible through online channels (WhatsApp and Telegram Applications) were selected. Then they were provided with the link to the online questionnaire.

Table 1. Independent-samples T-test results based on gender.

Variable	Groups	M (SD)	t (df)	p	S.E.	η^2
Physical QOL	Women	2.87 (.82)	−.97 (188)	.33	.12
	Men	2.99 (.79)
Psychological QOL	Women	2.75 (.76)	−2.24 (189)	.02*	.11	.026^a
	Men	2.98 (.70)
Social QOL	Women	2.98 (1.00)	−.30 (152)	.76	.13
	Men	3.03 (.78)
Environmental QOL	Women	2.77 (.69)	−.45 (189)	.65	.10
	Men	2.82 (.67)
Active leisure participation	Women	1.85 (.90)	−.75 (188)	.45	.12
	Men	1.94 (.82)
Passive leisure participation	Women	2.68 (.79)	−.04 (156)	.96	.10
	Men	2.68 (.65)
Social leisure participation	Women	2.30 (.90)	.32 (162)	.75	.12
	Men	2.26 (.77)
Active leisure availability	Women	2.02 (.93)	−1.48 (187)	.14	.13
	Men	2.22 (.89)
Passive leisure availability	Women	2.81 (.84)	−.24 (186)	.81	.11
	Men	2.83 (.70)
Social leisure availability	Women	2.46 (1.01)	.41 (186)	.68	.14
	Men	2.41 (.88)

Note: *Significant.

^a Eta squared = ${\displaystyle \frac{t^2}{t^2+(N1+N2-2)}}$.

This research was reviewed and approved by the Vancouver Island University’s Research Ethics Board (REB). To acknowledge the experience of refugees in vulnerable situations, additional efforts were made to ensure that participants were treated in an ethical manner (Zapata-Bereto & Yala, 2022). For example, potential participants were asked to review and approve the questionnaire to admit a “nothing about me, without me” mindset. Also, all documents and consent forms were translated into Farsi and Arabic to enhance the likelihood of informed consent. Participants were reminded that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time in order to mitigate potential risks associated with undue influence and emotional distress. A list of appropriate local mental health resources was provided, and they were informed that their information would remain undisclosed. Results were posted for participants; however, due to the transient nature of the study, member checks were not practical.

Results

The majority of the 203 respondents identified as men (53%), and 42% identified as women. Eleven individuals did not disclose their gender, and one person identified as non-binary. Most participants were between 19 and 44 (74.4%), with the highest frequency occurring in the 35–44 age brackets (31%). Regarding their ethnicity, 34.5% were from Afghanistan, 33% were Iranian, 24% were Syrians, and the rest were from Bangladesh and Somalia. Different dimensions of QOL were tested for men and women. Participants’ responses to the overall QOL and physical, psychological, social, and environmental items were poor (Table 2). Most leisure availability and leisure participation items were reported poor (below 3) or average (close to 3; Tables 3 and 4). There was a significant difference in psychological QOL scores for men (M = 2.98, SD = .70) and women (M = 2.75, SD = .76; t (189) = −2.24, p = .026). Based on the average responses, men perceived a significantly higher level of psychological QOL than women. Effect size calculation (η2 = .026) showed that the magnitude of the difference in the means was relatively small according to Cohen’s guidelines (Cohen, 2013). However, the other three dimensions of QOL (i.e. physical, social, and environmental) were not significantly different for men and women.

Table 2. QOL constructs.

Variables (Cronbach’s alpha)	Frequencies*					Mean	SD
	1	2	3	4	5
QOL
Overall QOL (α = .72)
Self-rate overall quality of life	31	28	33	29	6	2.61	1.21
Self-rate overall health	20	57	49	63	14	2.97	1.12
Physical QOL (α = .78)						2.50	.81
Pain and discomfort^RC	21	40	73	48	20	3.03	1.12
Dependence on medicinal aids^RC	15	45	71	52	20	3.08	1.08
Energy and fatigue	5	57	28	17	17	2.87	1.14
Mobility	17	45	45	41	12	2.91	1.12
Sleep and rest	11	48	69	55	16	3.08	1.03
Activities of daily living	12	53	74	51	10	2.97	0.98
Work Capacity	27	42	68	49	11	2.87	1.11
Psychological QOL (α = .74)						2.88	.73
Positive feelings	33	70	67	21	10	2.53	1.04
Spirituality / Religion / Personal beliefs	28	56	76	28	13	2.71	1.07
Thinking, learning. memory and concentration	11	58	74	40	20	3.00	1.04
Bodily image and appearance	4	12	20	48	29	3.76	1.06
Self-esteem	8	50	69	53	18	3.12	1.02
Negative feelings^RC	43	48	65	33	13	2.63	1.17
Social QOL (α = .59)						3.01	.87
Personal relationships	10	39	76	50	24	3.20	1.05
Sexual activity	26	44	56	35	36	3.05	1.29
Social support	30	35	88	34	13	2.82	1.09
Environmental QOL (α = .77)						2.80	.68
Freedom, physical safety, and security	22	42	71	46	22	3.02	1.14
Physical environment	8	43	96	42	14	3.05	0.92
Financial resources	36	58	11	20	1	2.14	1.03
Opportunities for acquiring new information and skills	13	27	71	38	5	3.00	0.94
Participation in and opportunities for leisure activities	52	32	47	5	1	2.06	0.96
Home environment	17	57	75	39	11	2.85	1.01
Health and social care: accessibility and quality	35	49	53	52	11	2.78	1.17
Transport	19	46	72	48	15	2.97	1.07

Notes: *Likert scale numbers representing the highest and the lowest level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with each life domain from 1 to 5.

^RC reverse coded items.

Table 3. Leisure participation constructs.

Variables (Cronbach’s alpha)	Frequencies*					Mean	SD
	1	2	3	4	5
Leisure Participation
Active (α = .89)						1.92	.85
Sport participation	100	61	19	13	5	1.80	1.03
Travel	85	65	32	11	6	1.93	1.04
Outdoor activity/camping	77	52	40	20	9	2.15	1.18
Sightseeing	111	45	24	15	4	1.77	1.05
Art	90	53	37	14	5	1.95	1.07
Playing music – frequency	110	42	32	10	5	1.78	1.05
Playing music – time spent	100	28	49	12	10	2.01	1.20
Passive (α = .66)						2.70	.71
Listening to music	23	53	58	47	18	2.92	1.15
Movie and TV shows	23	53	58	38	27	2.96	1.21
Video games	76	45	45	22	11	2.23	1.23
Social media	1	43	85	47	23	3.24	0.94
Reading	46	46	66	32	8	2.54	1.13
Watching Sports	66	46	54	25	8	2.31	1.17
Social (α = .79)						2.28	.82
Restaurant/Meals with friends	58	65	48	18	10	2.28	1.13
Watching movies with friends	68	56	43	24	8	2.24	1.16
Bar and Clubs	102	42	28	19	7	1.92	1.17
Game Nights	103	40	32	22	2	1.89	1.10
Talking/Conversation/Phone	10	42	90	38	19	3.07	0.99

Notes: *Likert scale, numbers represent the highest and the lowest level of frequency or time spent participating in the activity, from 1 to 5.

Table 4. Leisure availability constructs.

Variables (Cronbach’s alpha)	Frequencies*					Mean	SD
	1	2	3	4	5
Leisure Availability
Active (α = .88)						2.15	.91
Sport participation	90	52	26	20	6	1.97	1.14
Travel	76	46	41	23	8	2.18	1.19
Outdoor activity/Camping	62	59	43	27	3	2.23	1.09
Sightseeing	69	70	27	21	5	2.08	1.08
Art	67	60	33	19	14	2.24	1.23
Playing Music	69	44	48	25	6	2.24	1.17
Passive (α = .76)						2.84	.76
Listening to music	18	38	67	45	23	3.09	1.14
Movie and TV shows	27	48	57	44	17	2.87	1.17
Video games	51	57	42	29	13	2.46	1.22
Social media	1	33	70	60	29	3.43	0.96
Reading	25	53	62	38	12	2.78	1.10
Watching Sports	57	45	57	20	13	2.41	1.21
Social (α = .86)						2.44	.92
Restaurant/Meals with friends	58	48	54	17	16	2.40	1.23
Watching movies with friends	58	41	52	29	12	2.46	1.24
Bar and Clubs	77	59	32	20	5	2.05	1.10
Game Nights	65	52	41	23	11	2.29	1.21
Talking/Conversation/Phone	15	37	89	36	15	2.99	1.00

Notes: *Likert scale, numbers represent the highest and the lowest level of access or availability (never/rarely to usually/always), from 1 to 5.

Similarly, Independent-Sample T-Tests were calculated to compare leisure participation and leisure availability scores for men and women. Neither leisure participation nor leisure availability showed a significant difference between men and women for any dimensions (i.e. active, passive, and social). Table 1 presents these results. These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Subasi (2021), which demonstrated that Syrian refugee women in Turkey face a higher susceptibility to mental health problems and challenges posed by a deeply ingrained patriarchal culture, which imposes constraints on their life choices. Similarly, Sagır (2018) documented the higher prevalence of depression, lower life satisfaction, and lower sense of coherence among women refugees.

Discussion

To examine gender differences, a series of Independent-Samples T-Tests were run to compare the participants’ average responses to QOL, leisure participation, and leisure availability. Refugees’ responses to the QOL and leisure items accentuated their overall health, overall QOL, and physical, psychological, social, and environmental QOL were poor. Consequently, despite the obvious existing gender inequalities on a global scale (Annandale & Hammarström, 2015), the results of this study showed that both men and women refugee participants had equally poor QOL, limited leisure availability, and poor participation in leisure. Among all the leisure availability, leisure participation and QOL items, the only dimension that showed a significant difference in the mean of men’s and women’s responses was psychological QOL. In this dimension, women’s perceived QOL was significantly lower than men’s. Studies have shown that women report poor mental health, poor physical health, and limited access to daily activities compared to men. Women refugees living outside camps face fundamental complications, and their needs are neglected for several reasons, including but not limited to language barriers and literacy (Henderson & Gibson, 2013; Subasi, 2021). For example, UNHCR (2019) indicates that lacking access to formal education for refugees is higher than the world average (Alp et al., 2018). For example, only 66.7% of Syrian refugees aged 15 and above are literate. These reports show that 87% of men and 73% of Syrian women are literate. Therefore, women refugees are at higher risk of social exclusion (Mohammadi, 2019) because unemployment, language barriers, limited access to education, and gender-specific experiences isolate them (Subasi, 2021). Participation in leisure activities, however, can fill this gap and provide refugees in general and women refugees, in particular, with opportunities to build networks, find their community and engage in social activities. Engagement in leisure activities assists women in improving their life satisfaction (Agyar, 2014) and, as a learning environment, can provide them with a sense of connection and accomplishment (Safak-Ayvazoglu & Kunuroglu, 2021). As Hutchinson (2004) suggests, “leisure can be generative of a range of personal, familial, social, and cultural meanings”, which helps people to build “a sense of connection, accomplishment, self/relationship/cultural affirmation, control, etc.” (p. 31). Leisure carries several meanings in and within cultures (Gui et al., 2023). Regardless of diverse meanings, “leisure can be purposeful and meaningful to provide opportunities not only for having enjoyable socializing experiences with others, but also for building and re-building connections to  …  family, friends and the community” (Stack & Iwasaki, 2009, p. 251).

In conclusion, gender differences were found in psychological QOL scores among refugees, with men reporting higher scores than women. Displacement, significant damage to the social network, and poverty increase the risk of experiencing mental health. The risk is even higher because women are exposed to different gender-based violence and oppression within the family and society. In addition, religious stigma and racial and ethnic-based stereotypes may shape the meanings, barriers, and leisure experiences of women seeking asylum. For instance, Mohammadi (2021) investigated how Muslim women negotiate space (temporary refugee accommodation) through active leisure. More specifically, Mohammadi’s research challenged the assumptions about religion often used to explain differences and gaps in Muslim women’s leisure participation, availability, and engagement. De Martini Ugolotti and Caudwell (2021) highlighted Mohammadi’s approach to analyze how participants “contested, transformed and re-claimed their presence inside and outside of the centre in which they were accommodated” as refugees (p. 6). Also, Collison and De Martini Ugolotti provided valuable insights into the intersectionality of ethnicity, gender, and religion in the study of leisure pursuits of women refugees in Sweden. Their findings moved beyond the simplistic view of Muslim women as oppressed by religion and culture and being portrayed as traumatized refugees. Both studies underlined how “Muslim refugee women are represented as victims of socio-political forces and inherently outside the national, healthy, body politic” (p. 133). These perspectives and the present study’s findings problematized the inequality and inadequacy of leisure activities in the forced migration context, which can be crucial in proposing and designing leisure opportunities based on women’s needs and predicaments. Ultimately, there are overlaps between the issues discussed in the two studies (Collison & De Martini Ugolotti, 2021; Mohammadi, 2021) and the present study. I encourage future studies to conduct mixed-methods research to explore this issue, which could combine the broader scope of quantitative research and a more in-depth analysis of a qualitative approach.

This study has a few limitations. First, I conducted this research with refugees residing in Turkey’s non-camp, urban, and rural areas, which may affect the generalizability of findings to those living in camps where access to basic needs and resources may differ. Second, participants of this study had diverse cultural backgrounds, which could lead to varied interpretations of the leisure concept. To address this, I took various measures, including back translation and consultation with individuals from similar backgrounds, to minimize potential biases and ensure the accuracy of translations. Third, the questionnaire was only available in English, Farsi, and Arabic, which excluded people who spoke other languages. For future research, I recommend conducting policy analysis to explore how legal status affects refugees’ livelihood and leisure opportunities. While the study primarily focused on leisure availability and participation, investigating other factors, such as identity markers and power relations embedded in the leisure context, could improve our understanding of refugees’ leisure interests, opportunities, and challenges. Furthermore, I suggest that future studies use leisure definitions created specifically for and by individuals with a refugee background. Thus, a more diverse range of perspectives can be included in leisure research.

Ethics statement

File No: 100615

Approval Date: 22 April 2020

Expiry Date: 21 April 2021

The Vancouver Island University Research Ethics Board (VIU REB) has reviewed your revised Application for Ethical Review of your project entitled “Influence of Leisure on Quality of Life of Refugees: A Comparative Study of Refugees in Canada and Turkey”. Thank you for your attention to the points raised by REB reviewers.

I am pleased to relay that your application has been approved and, as at 22 April 2020, you are authorized to commence the research as outlined in the approved application. This REB approval is valid for one year less a day, until: 21 April 2021.

Throughout the duration of this REB approval, all requests for modifications to the approved ethical protocol must be submitted via the Research Portal.

If you have any questions about the REB review and approval process, please contact the REB Office at [email protected] or by telephone at [phone]. If you encounter any issues when working in the Research Portal, please contact our system administrator at [email protected].

Sincerely,

Vancouver Island University Research Ethics Board

Marina La Salle, PhD

Chair, VIU Research Ethics Board

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).