The Shitposting of Jazz to Come: Virtual Communities, Internetworks, and the Dank Jazz Meme

ABSTRACT

This article is a virtual ethnography of an online community of jazz fans and musicians that engage in the consumption and dissemination of internet memes about jazz. It argues that internet memes are not, or are not merely, trivial funny images shared online – that memes matter in the social study of jazz. I explore the position of memes in the contemporary jazz milieu, finding them to play an active role in a variety of community functions including evaluating authenticity, enculturating members, and interacting with familiar and unfamiliar individuals on- and offline. They are a window into the discursive practices of jazz communities, a credible pathway of jazz pedagogy, and possess genuine artistic credentials, bringing them within the remit of jazz practice itself. Jazz memes are what I call internetworks, an ontological and aesthetic term that projects them into the future of jazz and positions them firmly within its social gestalt. For ordinary jazz enthusiasts, memeing is a meaningful activity.

KEYWORDS:

• Internet memes
• virtual ethnography
• online community
• hipness
• jazz pedagogy
• internetworks

Acknowledgements

This article is based around the dissertation submitted as part of my undergraduate degree – my thanks go to my supervisor, Professor Jason Stanyek, for his guidance and generosity. I also want to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and criticism: as a junior researcher, their feedback was invaluable, as well as their encouragement. Finally, I once again dedicate this article to the memory of Tommy Flanagan, in order to assure him that the ridicule he receives is part of something greater than merely dank jazz memes.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 A form of countercultural vernacular content that resists definition, shitposting emerged in early 2017 as a specific internet sensibility of absurdist humour. It consists of the constant, provocative, and pervasively ironic posting of “unfunny” and “random” content, often intended to derail discussion.

2 Gabriele de Seta, “Neither Meme nor Viral: The Circulationist Semiotics of Vernacular Content,” Lexia 25, no. 26 (2016): 463–86; de Seta, “Digital Folklore,” in Second International Handbook of Internet Research, ed. Jeremy Hunsinger, Matthew Allen and Lisbeth Klastrup (Dordrecht: Springer, 2019): 167–83.

3 Limor Shifman, Memes in Digital Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2013); Ryan Milner, The World Made Meme: Public Conversations and Participatory Media (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2016); and Bradley Wiggins, The Discursive Power of Memes in Digital Culture: Ideology, Semiotics, and Intertextuality (London: Routledge, 2019). All three authors have also authored and/or contributed to several other journal articles, which are cited later in this text.

4 Shifman, Memes in Digital Culture, 4.

5 Ibid., 40.

6 Ibid., 41.

7 Peta Mitchell, Contagious Metaphor (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012).

8 Richard Dawkins, “Memes: The New Replicators,” in The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976).

9 Milner, World Made Meme.

10 Wiggins, Discursive Power of Memes, 1–6.

11 See, for instance: Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); and Robert Aunger, ed., Darwinising Culture: The Status of Memetics as a Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

12 Bradley Wiggins and Bret Bowers, “Memes as Genre: A Structurational Analysis of the Memescape,” New Media & Society 17, no. 11 (2015): 1891.

13 For an anthropological perspective of artefacts, see: Arjun Appadurai, The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

14 For community building, see: Lidija Marinkov Pavlović, “Internet Memes as a Field of Discursive Construction of Identity and Space of Resistance,” AM: Art Media 10 (2016): 97–106; Sylvia Sierra, “Intertextual Media References as Resources for Managing Frames, Epistemics, and Identity in Conversation among Friends” (Ph.D diss., Georgetown University, 2016), 135–50; and Ondřej Procházka, “A Chronotopic Approach to Identity Performance in a Facebook Meme Page,” Discourse, Context & Media 25 (2018): 78–87. For political memes, see: Ryan Milner, “Pop Polyvocality: Internet Memes, Public Participation, and the Occupy Wall Street Movement,” International Journal of Communication, 7 (2013): 2357–90; Noam Gal, Limor Shifman, and Zohar Kampf, “‘It Gets Better’: Internet Memes and the Construction of Collective Identity,” New Media & Society 18, no. 8 (2016): 1698–714; and Anna Piata, “When Metaphor Becomes a Joke: Metaphor Journeys from Political Ads to Internet Memes,” Journal of Pragmatics 106 (2016): 39–56.

15 Timothy Taylor, Global Pop: World Music, World Markets (New York, London: Routledge, 1997), xvii. For important, more recent works, see: Daniel Miller and Heather Horst, ed., Digital Anthropology (London: Berg, 2012); Christine Hine, Ethnography for the Internet: Embedded, Embodied and Everyday (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015); and Robert Kozinets, Netnography: Redefined (London: SAGE, 2015).

16 This methodological framework has been modelled on the work of Jannis Androutsopoulos, as discussed in Androutsopoulos, “Potentials and Limitations of Discourse-Centred Online Ethnography,” Language@Internet 5 (2008): Article 8.

17 Androutsopoulos, “Online Data Collection,” in Data Collection in Sociolinguistics: Methods and Applications, ed. Christine Mallinson, Becky Childs, and Gerard Van Herk (New York: Routledge, 2013).

18 Androutsopolous, “Discourse-Centred Online Ethnography,” 6.

19 Kiri Miller, Playing Along: Digital Games, YouTube, and Virtual Performance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 6; Tom Boellstorff, Coming of Age in Second Life: An Anthropologist Explores the Virtually Human (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 5.

20 Miller, Playing Along, 8.

21 John Suler, “The Online Disinhibition Effect,” CyberPsychology & Behaviour 7, no. 3 (2004): 324.

22 In Gregory Barz and Timothy Cooley, Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 91.

23 Androutsopolous, “Discourse-Centred Online Ethnography,” 5.

24 George Marcus, “Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography,” Annual Review of Anthropology 24, no. 1 (1995): 95–117.

25 Androutsopolous, “Discourse-Centred Online Ethnography,” 5.

26 Tyrone Adams and Stephen Smith, Electronic Tribes: The Virtual Worlds of Geeks, Gamers, Shamans, and Scammers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), 3.

27 For a considered discussion of virtual ethnographic ethics resolving around the guiding principle of care, see: Tom Boellstorff, “Ethics”, in Ethnography and Virtual Worlds: A Handbook of Method (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012), 129–50.

28 Ibid., 65–91; Suler, “Online Disinhibition Effect.”

29 Krin Gabbard, Jazz Among the Discourses (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 11; Robert Walser, “Out of Notes: Signification, Interpretation, and the Problem of Miles Davis,” Musical Quarterly 77, no. 2 (1993): 348.

30 George Lewis, “Improvised Music after 1950: Afrological and Eurological Perspectives,” Black Music Research Journal 16, no. 1 (2002): 91–122; Travis A. Jackson, Blowin’ the Blues Away: Performance and Meaning On the New York Jazz Scene (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 13.

31 In contrast to Gunther Schuller’s claim that the “jazz historian […] is forced to evaluate the only thing that is available to him [sic]: the recording,” in Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), x.

32 Ken Prouty, Knowing Jazz: Community, Pedagogy, and Canon in the Information Age (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2012), 5. See also Prouty, “Creating Boundaries in the Virtual Jazz Community,” in Jazz/Not Jazz: The Music and Its Boundaries, ed. Daniel Ake, Charles Garrett, and Daniel Goldmark (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012). Prouty’s work is an important touchpoint for this article.

33 Ingrid Monson, Sayin’ Something: Jazz Improvisation and Interaction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 6.

34 Gabriel Solis, Monk’s Music: Thelonious Monk and Jazz History in the Making (Berkeley: University of California Press), 13; Paul Berliner, Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).

35 Bret Primack, “The Revolution is Not Being Televised,” JazzTimes, December 1, 1998, https://jazztimes.com/archives/the-revolution-is-not-being-televised/ (accessed May 1, 2021).

36 Prouty, “Creating Boundaries.”

37 Prouty, Knowing Jazz, 149.

38 An age demographic less ingratiated with meme culture, and internet culture in general – see discussion below.

39 Adam Neely, “The 5 Music Theory/Composition Books That Most Influenced Me,” YouTube video, June 4, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dbabDhGZAhM (accessed May 1, 2021); Vincent Persichetti, Twentieth-Century Harmony: Creative Aspects and Practice (New York: W.W. Norton, 1961).

40 Prouty, Knowing Jazz, 12.

41 William Bruce Cameron, “Sociological Notes on the Jam Session,” Social Forces 33, no. 2 (1954): 177.

42 Ibid., 178.

43 Robert Stebbins, “Class, Status, and Power among Jazz and Commercial Musicians,” The Sociological Quarterly 7, no. 2 (1966): 197–213.

44 Alan Merriam and Raymond Mack, “The Jazz Community,” Social Forces 38, no. 3 (1960): 211.

45 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).

46 Prouty, Knowing Jazz, 21.

47 Elina Hytönen-Ng, “Place and Imagined Community in Jazz,” Jazz Research Journal 11, no. 1 (2017): 62–79.

48 Lee J. Matalon, “Modern Problems Require Modern Solutions: Internet Memes and Copyright,” Texas Law Review 98, no. 2 (2019): 405–37; Natalia Mielczarek and W. Wat Hopkins, “Copyright, Transformativeness, and Protection for Internet Memes,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 98, no. 1 (2021): 37–58.

49 Asaf Nissenbaum and Limor Shifman, “Internet Memes as Contested Cultural Capital: The Case of 4chan’s /b/ Board,” New Media & Society 19, no. 4 (2017): 483–501; Mickael Benaim, “From Symbolic Values to Symbolic Innovation: Internet-memes and Innovation,” Research Policy 47, no. 5 (2018): 901–10.

50 Ali Razzaq, Wei Shao, and Sara Quach, “Towards an Understanding of Meme Marketing: Conceptualisation and Empirical Evidence,” Journal of Marketing Management, ahead-of-print (2023): 1–32; Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for the Future at the New Frontier of Power (London: Profile Books, 2019).

51 Ioana Literat and Sarah Van Den Berg, “Buy Memes Low, Sell Memes High: Vernacular Criticism and Collective Negotiations of Value on Reddit's MemeEconomy,” Information, Communication & Society 22, no. 2 (2019): 232.

52 Prouty, Knowing Jazz, 30.

53 Berliner, Thinking in Jazz.

54 See, for instance, Tia DeNora, Music in Everyday Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); DeNora, After Adorno: Rethinking Music Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

55 Georgina Born, “Music and the Materialization of Identities,” Journal of Material Culture 16, no. 4 (2011): 377.

56 Benjamin Piekut, “Actor-Networks in Music History: Clarifications and Critiques,” Twentieth-Century Music 11, no. 2 (2014): 192.

57 Born, “Materialization of Identities,” 381.

58 Richard Bauman, “Language, Identity, Performance,” Pragmatics 10, no. 1 (2000): 1.

59 David W. McMillan and David M. Chavis, “Sense of Community: A Definition and Theory,” Journal of Community Psychology 14, no. 1 (1986): 10.

60 Adam Neely, “What is the Real Book? (a jazz shibboleth),” YouTube video, May 8, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dD0e5e6wI_A (accessed May 1, 2021).

61 The Mario Kart Lick is another meme/lick taken from the original soundtrack of the video game Mario Kart 8 on the course “Dolphin Shoals.” See Saxologic, “The ‘Mario Kart’ Lick,” YouTube video, July 25, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rD-tdEFKlg (accessed May 1, 2021).

62 This comment references a meme format called “Virgin vs. Chad” which compares men with low self-confidence to those more assertive.

63 The meme uses a format called “Is Fortnite Actually Overrated?” which is the original title to the video. By substituting the title for another phrase, it conveys the sentiment of having a serious discussion about juvenile subject matter.

64 Shifman, Memes in Digital Culture.

65 The term “jazz place” is borrowed from: Howard Becker, “Jazz Places,” in Music Scenes: Local, Translocal, and Virtual, ed. Andy Bennett and Richard Peterson (Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press, 2004).

66 Tony Whyton, Jazz Icons: Heroes, Myths, and the Jazz Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 73. See also: Anthony Cohen, Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Routledge, 1985).

67 McMillan and Chavis, “Sense of Community,” 10.

68 Prouty, Knowing Jazz, 27.

69 For a description of “stereotype threat” affecting women in jazz, see: Erin L. Wehr, “Understanding the experiences of women in jazz: A suggested model,” International Journal of Music Education 34, no. 4 (2016): 472–87.

70 Ingrid Monson, “The Problem with White Hipness: Race, Gender, and Cultural Conceptions in Jazz Historical Discourse,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 48, no. 3 (1995): 396–422.

71 Ibid., 396. I will return to this quote in the Conclusion as neatly drawing together several threads from the article.

72 Ibid., 399; 422.

73 Andrew Ross, No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture (New York; Routledge, 1989), 81.

74 Claire Moran and Kathomi Gatwiri, “#BlackLivesMatter: Exploring the Digital Practises of African Australian Youth on Social Media,” Media, Culture & Society 44, no. 7 (2022): 1342.

75 See, for instance: Danielle Fosler-Lussier, “The African Diaspora in the United States: Appropriation and Assimilation,” in Music on the Move (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2020), 68–92.

76 George McKay, “The heritage of slavery in British jazz festivals,” International Journal of Heritage Studies 26, no. 6 (2020): 576. I chose this citation as giving real and recent examples of how to link jazz history to its current presence, and the “cultural responsibility” of those in positions of power to do so.

77 The “laugh” reaction here indicates disagreement with the comment by implying that it is a “shitpost,” retrospectively reinterpreting it as “unserious.” The reactors are likely fully aware that the comment was intended seriously but undermine its seriousness by falsely interpreting it as ironic.

78 Guthrie P. Ramsey Jr., “Who Hears Here? Black Music, Critical Bias, and the Musicological Skin Trade,” The Musical Quarterly 85, no. 1 (2001): 40.

79 Amiri Baraka, “Jazz and the White Critic,” in Black Music (New York: Akashic Books, 2010), 15–26.

80 Without meaning to quantify or simplify the interaction too much, the first reply received 8 “positive” reactions and 9 “negative,” whilst the second received 28 unanimously positive ones.

81 Irfan Chaudhry and Anatoliy Gruzd, “Expressing and Challenging Racist Discourse on Facebook: How Social Media Weaken the “Spiral of Silence” Theory,” Policy and Internet 12, no. 1 (2020): 88–108.

82 As one commenter put it in response to a request for explanation: “The bigger lesson is that police institutions are constructed as such that it is impossible to participate in policing without upholding systemic oppression.” It is clearly beyond the scope of this article to thoroughly explore the notion hence I take it largely at face value, but, in TSoJtC, such views were generally considered part of the “social consciousness” mentioned above.

83 Patricia J Dixon and Lauren Dundes, “Exceptional Injustice: Facebook as a Reflection of Race- and Gender-Based Narratives Following the Death of George Floyd,” Social Sciences 9, no. 12 (2022): 231–55.

84 Monson, “White Hipness,” 399; and my thanks to an anonymous reviewer for raising this latter point.

85 Ibid., 422.

86 Ruth Finnegan, The Hidden Musicians: Music-Making in an English Town (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

87 Damian Evans, “The Creation of Meaning and Identity in the Dublin Jazz Scene, Past and Present,” (Ph.D diss, Technology University Dublin, 2016), 85.

88 Evans, “Dublin Jazz Scene,” 87.

89 Ibid., 88.

90 The term “jazzing” is borrowed from Thomas Greenland, Jazzing: New York City’s Unseen Scene (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2017).

91 Robert Stebbins, “A Theory of the Jazz Community,” The Sociological Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1968): 328.

92 Enculturation does not entail the trimming of unacceptable behaviours, merely the acquisition of new ones.

93 The meme uses a format called “I Know What I Have to Do but I Don't Know if I Have the Strength to Do It,” a quote from the character Kylo Ren in the 2015 science-fiction action film Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Memes using this format apply the quote to trivial situations, juxtaposing Ren’s dramatic delivery with the ephemerality of everyday life. The story refers to a joke Miles Davis played on Bill Evans when he joined Davis’ group, telling him “Bill, you gotta fuck the band.”

94 The meme refers to a jazz story about the pianist Tommy Flanagan and the original recording of “Giant Steps” on the eponymous 1960 John Coltrane album. Supposedly, before the session Flanagan had thought that the chart was a ballad, when in fact it approaches 300bpm, and as a result his solo falters and teeters out before Coltrane comes back in with a foray of notes. Flanagan is the butt of good-natured ridicule as a result even though he superbly rerecorded “Giant Steps” in 1982 – I dedicate this article to him.

95 The format is called “Let Me In”, depicting American comedian Eric Andre screaming to be allowed to enter the Democratic National Convention in 2016. Memes using this format apply creative labels to the different elements of the image to convey something that is not allowed inside something else.

96 Lezandra Grundlingh, “Memes as Speech Acts,” Social Semiotics 28, no. 2 (2018): 150.

97 George Russell, The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organisation (Brookline: Concept Publishing Company, 1953).

98 See Introduction for a definition of “enthymemes.”

99 Adam Neely, “7:11 Polyrhythms,” YouTube video, February 25, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dbabDhGZAhM (accessed May 1, 2021).

100 Adam O’Dell, “I play a 7:11 polyrhythm outside a 7 Eleven for 7 min and 11 s,” YouTube video, March 1, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNoEHatGeHM (accessed May 1, 2021); MaRiOoOomEn, “The Lick ft. Rick Astley ft. #The711challenge,” YouTube video, March 1, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-GC3NEnqrc (accessed March 1, 2021); Brooks Tarkington, “711 Challenge - All Star by Smash Mouth but it's the lick but it's a 7:11 polyrhythm,” YouTube video, March 1, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tb_i1iYkIw8 (accessed May 1, 2021); Alex Becerra, “Playing a 7/11 polyrhythm inside a 7-Eleven on July 11th at 7:11 for 7 min and 11 s,” YouTube video, July 12, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XT9IF4CMQDI (accessed May 1, 2021).

101 In neither of the provided examples – the 7/11 Challenge and the Mario Kart Lick – do I mean to advocate for a particular pedagogical focus or aesthetic orientation in jazz, but to emphasise how memes can provide an impetus for musical practice of any kind. The same principles of motivation could be applied to various forms of virtuosity and musicianship beyond challenging polyrhythms or bebop vocabulary. My thanks to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this out.

102 Greenland, Jazzing, 3; Christopher Small, Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1998).

103 Brian Kane, “Jazz, Mediation, Ontology,” Contemporary Music Review: Music, Mediation Theories and Actor-Network Theory 37, no. 5–6 (2018): 508.

104 Ibid., 519–24.

105 Ibid., 514.

106 This description is borrowed from Georgina Born, “On Musical Mediation: Ontology, Technology and Creativity,” Twentieth-Century Music 2, no. 1 (2005): 28. For more on Signifyin(g), see: Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), especially “Tropological Revision,” 19–20; and Monson, Sayin’ Something.

107 For more on palimpsests, see: J. Martin Daughtry, “Acoustic Palimpsests and the Politics of Listening,” Music & Politics 7, no. 1 (2013).

108 Tracey McMullen, Haunthenticity: Musical Replay and the Fear of the Real (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2019).

109 The “process of remembering in jazz,” again in relation to Monk, is explored further in Solis’ Monk’s Music.

110 McMullen, Hauthenticity, 6–7; Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin, Remediation: Understanding New Media (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1999).

111 Wiggins, Discursive Power of Memes, 133.

112 Ryan Milner, “Hacking the Social: Internet Memes, Identity Antagonism, and the Logic of Lulz,” The Fibreculture Journal 22 (2014): 62–92.

113 Wiggins, Discursive Power of Memes, 140.

114 Kenneth Goldsmith, Uncreative Writing: Managing Language in the Digital Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 1.

115 These use a format that denote a “simp,” an individual, usually male, perceived as being overly invested in a woman and acting submissively to that person. The begging emoji over the face and the two touching fingers, indicating shyness of hesitation in making a request, comprise the meme format: whereas in previous formats the image is provided and captions or features of the image are manipulated, this format is added on top of other images.

116 Urban Sense, “Miles Davis angry at Herbie Hancock,” YouTube video, March 31, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUG0P7tcCto (accessed May 1, 2021).

117 The format is called “Mike Wazowski-Sulley Face Swap”, cropped from a digital mashup of the faces of two characters from the 2001 Pixar movie Monsters Inc.. The image is used as a reaction, and with various captions that seem to align with Wazowski’s facial expression.

118 The visual politics of representing a Black musician’s face in this way are dubious; this was one of very few examples that I saw that seemed to unwittingly reflect primitivist imagery of Black musicians in its visual content (see section 1.3 and Conclusion).

119 The incident referenced in the first comment occurred at the 2009 MTV Music Awards. While Taylor Swift was giving her acceptance speech for Best Female Video, Kanye West came onto the stage, took the microphone from her, and said, “Yo, Taylor, I'm really happy for you, I'mma let you finish, but Beyoncé had one of the best videos of all time!” West’s opening line can be reappropriated in other contexts, especially to show a rude, arrogant intrusion. The third comment references an anecdote that Herbie Hancock often tells about Miles Davis, when Hancock says he had reached a rut in his music and Davis advised him to “not play the butter notes.” Hancock interpreted it as meaning to leave out certain “excess” notes in chords, or obvious notes in solos.

120 jeepsy k, “Miles Davis angry at Shittyflute,” YouTube video, February 19, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OIksTo_-vg (accessed May 1, 2021).

121 Simon Fransman, “Miles Davis having a really bad day,” YouTube video, October 4, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_RbzZ0HncL8 (accessed May 1, 2021). This is a video meme called “Dame Da Ne”, which is a lyric from the pop ballad “Bakamitai” and can be sung in karaoke sections of the Japanese video games Yakuza 0 and Yakuza 5. The song is often paired with deepfake technology to appear at unexpected moments.

122 Kane, “Jazz, Mediation, Ontology,” 519.

123 The phrase “social gestalt” is borrowed from Greenland, Jazzing, 7.

124 This meme uses a variation of “Virgin vs. Chad” called “Swole Doge vs. Cheems.” It was posted by Wes in TSoJtC but curiously he did not recognise it as his own work when presented with it in our interview.

125 For more on such stories, see: Charles Garrett, “The Humor of Jazz,” in Jazz/Not Jazz.

126 Matthew Perse, “Jazz as Discourse: Music, Identity, and Space” (Ph.D diss., Miami University, 2011).

127 Ibid., 68; George Lewis, “Foreword: Who Is Jazz?” in Philip Bohlman and Goffredo Plastino, Jazz Worlds/World Jazz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).

128 Ryan Bradley, “19 Songs That Matter Now,” The New York Times, March 10, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/03/10/magazine/jd-beck-domi.html (accessed May 1, 2021). For the full video of the performance see: Daniel Kirby, “DOMi & JD BECK - Live at The Moroccan Lounge, DTLA 1/18/2020,” YouTube video, January 21, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_0RvyM5XHg (accessed May 1, 2021).

129 gettnastyy on ins, “[adult swim festival] thundercat--- them changes (feat. Ariana Grande, DOMI & JD Beck),” YouTube video, December 21, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sa0upTDZDYQ (accessed May 1, 2021).

130 Greenland, Jazzing, 38.

131 Miller, Playing Along, 218; Prouty, Knowing Jazz, 147.

132 Bruce Johnson, Jazz Diaspora: Music and Globalisation (London: Routledge, 2019), 39.

133 E. Taylor Atkins, Jazz Planet (Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi, 2004), xxiii; xiii; Bohlman and Plastino, Jazz Worlds/World Jazz; and Anna Tsing, “Worlding the Matsutake Diaspora: Or, Can Actor-Network Theory Experiment with Holism?” in Experiments in Holism: Theory and Practice in Contemporary Anthropology, ed. Ton Otto and Nils Bubandt (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010): 47–66.

134 Johnson, Jazz Diaspora; Bruce Johnson and Adam Havas, “Western Bias, Canonicity, and Cultural Globalisation: Introduction to ‘Jazz Diasporas’,” Popular Music and Society 45, no. 4 (2022): 373.

135 Gabbard, Jazz Among the Discourses, 15.

136 Matthew Somoroff, “Listening at the Edges: Aural Experience and Affect in a New York Jazz Scene” (Ph.D diss., Duke University, 2014), 236.

137 Sierra, “Intertextual Media References,” 141.

138 Evans, “Dublin Jazz Scene,” 90.