Toxic and carcinogenic effects of hexavalent chromium in mammalian cells in vivo and in vitro: a recent update

Abstract

Chromium VI (Cr (VI)) can cross cell membranes readily and causes the formation of Cr-DNA adducts, genomic damages, elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and alteration of survival signaling pathways, as evidenced by the modulation in p53 signaling pathway. Mammals, including humans are exposed to Cr, including Cr (VI), frequently through inhalation, drinking water, and food. Several studies demonstrated that Cr (VI) induces cellular death through apoptosis and autophagy, genotoxicity, functional alteration of mitochondria, endocrine and reproductive impairments. In the present review, studies on deleterious effects of Cr (VI) exposure to mammalian cells (in vivo and in vitro) have been documented. Special attention is paid to the underlying molecular mechanism of Cr (VI) toxicity.

Graphical Abstract

Keywords:

• Oxidative stress
• mitochondrial dysfunction
• genotoxicity
• hypermethylation
• reproductive impairment
• neurotoxicity

Acknowledgements

The authors are sincerely thankful to the Maulana Azad National Fellowships (UGC ref ID- 201920-345938), UGC, Ministry of Minority of Affairs and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR File No. 09/202 (0102)/2019-EMR-I), Government of India for their financial supports. We thankfully acknowledge Professor Manas Ranjan Roy for editing the manuscript to improve the quality.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Data availability statement

No datasets were analyzed or generated during the course of the current review study.

Additional information

Funding

Maulana Azad National Fellowship, UGC, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.