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Sustainable Environment
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Volume 9, 2023 - Issue 1
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ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Analysis of herbal medicine among Bedouin of the Saint Catherine Protectorate (southern Sinai Peninsula) and its comparison to modern drug design

Rivka Ofira Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, Central Arava, Hatzeva, Israel;b The Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell (RMSC) Research Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, IsraelView further author information
,
Roni Levc Tzemach – Natural Medicine Clinic, Metzer, IsraelView further author information
,
Miriam Rond Deshe – Open Landscape Institute, Tel Aviv, IsraelView further author information
&
Ilan Stavie Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, Yotvata, Israel;f Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Eilat, IsraelCorrespondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-9725-0003View further author information
ORCID Icon |
Michelle Bloorg Scotland's Rural College, United KingdomView further author information
(Reviewing editor:)
Article: 2278831 | Received 06 Aug 2023, Accepted 25 Oct 2023, Published online: 12 Nov 2023

ABSTRACT

The Saint Catherine region of southern Sinai Peninsula’s drylands encompasses a unique combination of geophysical conditions. These features have formed highly diverse habitats, which support extremely complex plant communities. Throughout history, the local Bedouin population has used many of these plants for therapeutic purposes. The objectives of this study were to document the medicinal knowledge for as many as possible plant species, evaluate this ethnobotanic knowledge against a modern biomedical database, and identify links between the two disciplines. On-site gathering of information, through structured interviews with two local key informants, revealed the traditional use of 90 native vegetation species for a range of therapeutic purposes. Surveying the modern biomedical uses of these plant species in the PubMed database revealed medicinal use for 41 of them, as well as other plant species without known traditional therapeutic uses. Of the 41 plant species, in-depth integration of traditional and modern knowledge was implemented for 20 species, for which sufficient information was found in the PubMed. The results highlight the common ground between the two disciplines, and propose bridges between traditional and modern medicines. The study stresses the need for additional research in ethnobotany, which may assist in developing new plant-based medications.

1. Introduction

The Upper Sinai Massif—located in the drylands of southern Sinai Peninsula—encompasses unique geophysical features, and is characterized by various geological beds, topographical landforms, geomorphic settings, and pedogenic conditions. These features form multiple habitats, micro-habitats, and ecological refugia, enabling the establishment, growth, and survival of extremely complex vegetation communities, and resulting in high species richness and diversity (Moustafa & Klopatek, Citation1995; Moustafa et al., Citation2019; Zalat et al., Citation2008). This is consistent with recent knowledge gained in the field of dryland geodiversity, providing new insights on the impact of geodiversity on soil-water dynamics and surface hydrology (Stavi et al., Citation2018), as well as on soil quality and functions (Stavi et al., Citation2019), with the consequent regulation of the structure and composition of plant communities (Lausch et al., Citation2020).

Many species of Sinai Peninsula’s flora have been traditionally utilized by the local Bedouin communities as medicinal plants. Numerous studies that investigated the traditional therapeutic plant-use among Sinai’s Bedouin tribes have either focused on northern Sinai or surveyed the entire peninsula. For example, the studies by Bailey and Danin (Citation1981), Abd El-Wahab (Citation2008), Saleem (Citation2012), El-Seedi et al. (Citation2013), Eissa et al. (Citation2014), Elbadry et al. (Citation2015), and Abd El-Wahab et al. (Citation2018) all listed numerous plant species, and the corresponding traditional knowledge on diseases, illnesses, and health disorders that can potentially be cured by them. At the same time, only scant studies have focused on the medicinal plant-use among the Bedouin of the Saint Catherine Protectorate region. A rare exception is the study by Ramadan et al. (Citation2018), who identified five medicinal chamaephyte species across the region, including Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile, Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch.Bip., Chiliadenus montanus (Vahl) Brullo, Origanum syriacum L., and Thymus decussatus Benth. Further, relatively few studies (e.g. El-Seedi et al., Citation2013; Elbadry et al., Citation2015; Saleem, Citation2012) have assessed the traditional folkloristic information against contemporary medicinal knowledge. Such an assessment is important both for an academic validation of ethnobotanic knowledge and for proposing leads for new, modern medications.

Therefore, the main objective of this study was to cross information between traditional knowledge on medicinal plant-use among the Bedouin inhabiting the drylands of the Upper Sinai Massif, and modern clinical information. The study’s specific objectives were to (1) list the native plant species traditionally utilized by local Bedouin, detailing specific medicinal purposes; (2) search for relevant bibliography of both in vitro and in vivo studies about potential therapeutic properties of these plant species; (3) identify metabolites (and metabolite combinations) that are active against human disease models, obtained by in vitro and/or in vivo studies; and (4) establish an integrative approach to identify information gaps between traditional knowledge of plant-based medicine and scientific-based drug design, while proposing directions for future research. The study hypothesis was that traditional/Bedouin knowledge and modern/clinical information on plants’ medicinal properties and uses are substantially compatible. This hypothesis was based on the centuries-old wisdom that has been obtained by Saint Catherine’s Bedouin community, which has demonstrated high skills in medicinal use of a wide range of vegetation lifeforms, including phanerophytes (trees and shrubs), chamaephytes (dwarf shrubs), hemicryptophytes (perennial herbaceous plants), therophytes (annual herbaceous plants), and geophytes (bulb and tuber plants). This hypothesis also relied on modern knowledge, according to which metabolites of desert plants contain a wide range of active materials with a substantial therapeutic potential (Ofir, Citation2020).

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Regional settings

The Saint Catherine Protectorate is located in the southern Sinai Peninsula (central datum point 28°33′42″ N; 33°56′57″ E). The region encompasses an isolated block of Precambrian igneous crystalline rocks, dominated by red or white granites and black volcanic bedrocks (Danin, Citation1983; UNESCO, Citation2002) and characterized with steep topography of high mountains that are transected by deep wadis (ephemeral stream channels). The elevation of some of the highest mountains is 2,642 (Jebel Katerina), 2,318 (Jebel Ahmar), 2,304 (Jebel Abas Basha), and 2,285 (Jebel Musa) m.a.s.l (Mekhaimr, Citation2017). The region’s climate ranges from arid to hyper arid (Fakhry et al., Citation2019). The mean daily temperatures in the coldest and warmest months are ~3–7 ºC (January) and ~25–30 ºC (July), mean relative humidity ranges between 27% (May) and 46% (January), and mean annual precipitation is ~60 mm, distributed among ~10 rain showers a year (Ayyad et al., Citation2000; Mekhaimr, Citation2017).

In phytogeographical terms, the Irano—Turanian chorotype is predominant in the Upper Sinai Massif region, but Saharo—Arabian, Sudanese, and Mediterranean chorotypes are also found (Moustafa & Klopatek, Citation1995). Of the approximately 1,000 plant species found across the peninsula, about a half grow in the Massif region, with relatively high representativeness of rare, very rare, and endemic species. Also, the region hosts an abundance of relict plant species that characterize currently colder/moister biomes (Ayyad et al., Citation2000; Danin, Citation1983; Kamel et al., Citation2001). The plant species occurring across the region represent over 140 genera and more than 40 families, with Gramineae (Poaceae), Compositae (Asteraceae), Labiatae (Lamiaceae), Leguminosae (Fabaceae), and Boraginaceae being the most widespread (Kamel et al., Citation2001).

The Saint Catherine Monastery, established by the Eastern Orthodox Church approximately during the mid-6th century CE at the foot of Mount Sinai, has generated wide Christian interest in the region. Following the establishment of the monastery, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I sent servants from the Balkans to reside in the vicinity of the monastery. Over time, the servants intermarried with Bedouin of the local Jabaliya tribe, and eventually converted to Islam (von Sarnowski, Citation2010). Over the years, as a source of subsistence farming, the Jabaliya Bedouin have developed a dense system of agricultural gardens along the region’s wadis, which are irrigated by water obtained from numerous springs and wells (Danin, Citation1983). The rare combination of biophysical properties across the southern Sinai mountainous region, alongside its unique archaeological, historic, social, anthropological, and theological features, led the Egyptian government to declare the region as a natural protectorate in 1988. In 2002, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) nominated the region as a World Heritage site (UNESCO, Citation2002).

2.2. Information collection

2.2.1. Structured interviews

Structured interviews were separately conducted with two local key informants (their names are kept with the authors), who have served as herbal therapists among the Jabaliya community over several decades. The interviewer (the third co-author of this manuscript) is an expert botanist, who has gained rich experience in ethnobotanic studies, and holds profound knowledge of plant communities native to the Saint Catherine Protectorate. The interviews were implemented using a structured trilingual (Arabaic, Hebrew, and Latin) spreadsheet encompassing a list of over 200 native plant species, which was prepared in advance based on previous vegetation surveys across the region. Also, three designated fieldtrips across the Protectorate were conducted by the authors of this manuscript with one of the key informants, aimed at obtaining information for selected plant species. Whether mentioned in the spreadsheet or identified in the field, the key informant was questioned about each plant species’ therapeutic/medicinal potential and its specific uses, whenever relevant. The two key informants gave us their consent for academically publishing of the information provided by them.

2.2.2. Bibliographic survey

For the bibliographic survey, we used the PubMed database (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/), which covers more than 34 million citations for biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals, and online books. Accompanying information was obtained from the Flora of Israel and Adjunct Areas website (https://flora.org.il/en/plants/ACHFAL/). Information was searched using keywords, including names of specific plant families; names of specific plant species; disease indications (e.g. heart failure, stomach diseases, Crohn’s disease, ache, sore, wound, bacterial/fungi infection, organ inflammation, cancer, degenerative diseases, depression, impotence, sterility, etc.); in vitro disease models (e.g. mouse/rat/human cancer cells, primary brain cells, etc.), and in vivo disease models (e.g. genetic modified, Caenorhabditis elegans, mice, drosophila, animal injected with cancer cells, animal infected with virus, animal infected with bacteria, etc.). Further, combinations of keywords and disease models were also searched.

2.2.3. In-depth survey and integration of traditional and academic knowledge for selected species

Among the native plant species for which both traditional and modern knowledge was recorded, 20 species were selected for an in-depth survey. These 20 plants have been traditionally used to treat disease and disorders such as skin wounds, stomach ache/irritation, sore throat and infections, digestive disorders, colitis, eye inflammation, kidney stones, pain relief, toothache, arthritis, hemorrhage/blood clot, colon problems/constipation, etc. The rationale for selecting these specific 20 species was the discovery of sufficient clinical and/or preclinical information in the PubMed database, which allowed the thorough integration of modern knowledge with the ethnic experience.

3. Results and discussion

Traditional use of plants for medicinal/therapeutic purposes involves actual trials on patients. This method of treatment is usually suitable for remote and isolated human populations without other available healthcare options. It relies on profound beliefs in the therapeutic potency of local plants. A list of 90 plant species traditionally utilized for therapeutic purposes by the Bedouin population of Saint Catherine is detailed in Table .

Table 1. Saint Catherine plant species with traditional therapeutic uses

Plant-based pharmaceuticals are developed according to a procedure starting with the screening of plant materials (extracts and metabolites) against in vitro and in vivo disease models, followed by pre-clinical studies for toxicity/safety, and assessments for efficacy. In this study, we identified correlations between human diseases that are treated by traditional medicine, and plant-based activities identified using disease models that have been established by the academic community. The match is defined here as a ‘bridge’ between these two disciplines. It seems that plant metabolites hold the promise of the ‘wisdom of the desert’ for discovering new leads for drugs. Thorough research of this promise may become a novel track for drug developments in the future.

The therapeutic uniqueness of desert plants is attributed to the fact that under abiotic stress conditions, such as those that define drylands, plants stimulate oxidative stress reactive oxygen species (ROS), regulating the amounts of effective disease-controlling secondary metabolites (Alshehri et al., Citation2022). The ROS plays a key role in plants’ acclimation to abiotic stress by acting as signal transduction molecules that regulate different pathways during plant adaptation to stress but is also a toxic byproduct of stress metabolism (Choudhury et al., Citation2017).

In this study, we demonstrate and discuss the bridge between traditional knowledge and academic information for 20 plant species, with information for additional 21 species (totaling 41 species) detailed in Table :

  1. Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch.Bip. is used by local Bedouin to treat skin wounds. According to academic research, in vitro extracts of A. fragrantissima showed anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities (Elmann et al., Citation2011, Citation2014). Sesquiterpene lactone and Flavonoid 3,5,4′-trihydroxy-6,7,3′-trimethoxyflavone (TTF) that were isolated from A. fragrantissima act as anti-oxidants (Elmann et al., Citation2015). Among 108 identified components in oil extracted from leaves of A. fragrantissima, the major components were trans-sabinyl acetate, trans-sabinol, artemisia ketone, santolina alcohol, β-sesquiphellandrene, β-thujone, trans-sabinyl acetate, trans-sabinol, santolina alcohol, and β-sesquiphellandrene (Khan et al., Citation2020). Often, inflammation causes wounds and/or wound leads to inflammation. Therefore, wound and inflammation bridge between the two disciplines.

  2. Artemisia sieberi Besser is utilized among the local Bedouin community against stomach-ache, fever, and kidney disorders. In vivo academic studies on ulcer in rat models showed that A. sieberi acts as anti-ulcerogenic agent by attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory responses that are associated with ulcer (Ammar et al., Citation2022). The identified active metabolites are Camphor, E-caryophyllene, eucalyptol, germacrene D, and α-cadinol (Vieira et al., Citation2017). The conditions described in traditional medicine as stomach-ache bridges with ulcer conditions, which also involve suffering from stomach-ache.

  3. Ballota undulata (Sieber ex Fresen.) Benth. is used by the local Bedouin community against skin irritation. According to academic knowledge, ROS can cause skin irritation. An in vitro study showed that B. undulata functions as a scavenger of ROS (Dawood et al., Citation2022; Siciliano et al., Citation2005), and that this species contains metabolites with free radical scavenging activities (such as forsythoside B, lysionotoside, verbascoside, betonyoside F, iridoid, verminoside, seven flavonoids, and two betaine derivatives: Siciliano et al., Citation2005). For this plant species, the ROS bridges between traditional and academic treatment.

  4. Chiliadenus iphionoides (Bioss. & Blanche) Brullo is utilized by local Bedouin to treat sore throat and heal infections. Results from academic research show that organic extracts of C. iphionoides aerial parts contain antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus aureus and acinetobacter baumannii. The active metabolites belong to the farnesane-type sesquiterpenoids (9-hydroxynerolidol, 9-oxonerolidol, and chiliadenol B). It was suggested that these metabolites have the potential to be developed into new antibiotics (Masi et al., Citation2021). Both disciplines tackle infection.

  5. Chiliadenus montanus (Vahl) Brullo is traditionally used by local Bedouin against sore throat and infections. In vitro studies of the species identified antimicrobial activity against an array of common bacterial and fungal strains (Abu-Darwish et al., Citation2022). The following metabolites were identified in C. montanus: chrysosplenol-D, 5,7,4’-trihydroxy- 3,3’-dimethoxy flavone, 5,7-dihydroxy −3,3“,4”-trimethoxyflavone, Bonanzin , 3,5,6,7,4’-pentamethoxy flavone, sesquiterpene, Cryptomeridiol, and stigmast-5,22-dien-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Habib et al., Citation2021). The species’ metabolites are effective in eliminating bacterial/fungal infection, which seems to accord both with traditional and modern treatments.

  6. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. is used in traditional Bedouin medicine for curing stomach and skin irritation, digestive problems, and rheumatism. In vivo academic studies showed that topical application of methanol extract of C. colocynthis fruit pulp promote wound contraction in rat models, as a result of colocynthin accumulation (Gupta et al., Citation2018). In vitro, C. colocynthis has proved to have many active properties, such as antioxidative, hypoglycemic, antibacterial, anti-cancerous, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, gastrointestinal tract, reproduction, protection, anti-microbial, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antineoplastic, profibrinolytic, anti-allergic, pesticidal, and immune-stimulatory (Abdulridha et al., Citation2020; Li et al., Citation2021). The C. colocynthis contains glycosides and cucurbitacins (colocynthin and colocynthetin) (Dasari et al., Citation2020). Skin irritation and rheumatism involve imbalanced immune system, which accords with the two disciplines.

  7. Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile is used in Bedouin traditional medicine for healing digestive problems and skin irritation. Academic research showed that C. droserifolia helps in antibacterial wound dressing (Sarhan et al., Citation2016) and has efficient hepatoprotective effects (Abdel-Kader et al., Citation2009). The C. droserifolia is comprised of sesquiterpenes (cis-nerolidol, α-cadinol, δ-cadinene, γ-mumurolene, guaiane, sesquiterpenes, buchariol, teucladiol, daucosterol, and β-sitosterol glucoside) (Abd El-Gawad et al., Citation2018), as well as flavonoid derivatives (5,3′-dihydroxy-3,6,7,4′,5′-pentamethoxyflavone, 5′-hydroxy-3,6,7,3′,4′,5′-hexamethoxyflavone, and luteolin). Also, it is known to comprise dolabellane diterpene (1R,2R,3E,7E,11R,12S)-2-O-acetyl-16-O-(3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl)-dolabella-3,7-dien-2,16,18-triol, 3′ -methoxy-3,5,4′, -trihydroxy flavone-7-neohesperidoside) and megastigmane (norterpene (6S,9R)-roseoside) (Abdel-Kader et al., Citation2009). Yet, it is still unknown which metabolites or metabolite combinations—that are effective in wound dressing, and have a hepatoprotective effect—encompass the active compounds that may bridge between tradition and academia.

  8. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. is used by the local Bedouin population for treating digestive disorders. Positive effects of F. vulgare were reported in in vivo models of rats for necrotizing enterocolitis, bowel damage, and in acetic acid-induced colitis (Yakut et al., Citation2020). The potential active metabolites in F. vulgare are flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and amino acids (Badgujar et al., Citation2014). Digestive disorders as reported by the traditional medicine, and bowel damage and colitis as reported in the academic research, encompass the connection between the two disciplines.

  9. Glaucium arabicum Fresen. is used in Bedouin traditional medicine for curing eye inflammation. According to in vivo models, allocryptopine—an alkaloid isolated from G. arabicum – improves inflammations of isolated ileum and urinary bladder in rats (Abu-Ghalyun et al., Citation1997). Isoquinoline alkaloids, araglaucine A, and araglaucine B, are G. arabicum‘s unique metabolites. Specifically, there are seven known metabolites [1-[(3`,4`-dimethoxy-2`-methylcarboxy)benzoyl]-6,7-methylenedioxy isoquinoline (araglaucine C), (7 R,14S)-trans-N-methylcanadinium nitrate, (R,S)-trans-N-methylstylopine, 14-hydroxy-N-methyl canadine, 14- hydroxy-N-methyl stylopine, protopine, norsanguinarine, β-sitosterol, and β-sitosterol 3-O-β–D-glucoside] (Elbermawi et al., Citation2018). Eye inflammation, ileum inflammation, and urinary bladder are bridges between traditional medicine and academic research.

  10. Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge ex Bioss. is used in traditional Bedouin medicine for treating kidney stones. In modern medicine, an accepted treatment for kidney stones is antibiotics. Indeed, academic studies suggested that H. salicornicum contains anti-bacterial properties (Yousif et al., Citation2021). Compounds identified in this species belong to various classes like fatty acids, triglycerides, steroids, coumarins, monocyclic naphthene derivatives, and peptides that depend on salinity (Panda et al., Citation2020). The specific anti-bacterial activity of these compounds is still unknown. The anti-bacterial activity of H. salicornicum against kidney stones is a suggested bridge between traditional treatments and academic studies.

  11. Launaea spinosa (Forssk.) Sch.Bip. ex Kuntze is traditionally used by local Bedouin for pain relief. According to in vivo studies, methanolic extracts of L. spinosa contain anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities (Asif et al., Citation2020). In addition, the major phenolic compounds isolated from L. spinosa displayed a substantial cytoprotective effect against oxidative stress, sustaining the normal redox status of cells (Abdallah et al., Citation2016). A new phenolic compound—identified as 2,3-diferulyl R,R-(+) methyl tartrate—alongside five known metabolites including esculetin, esculetin-7-O-d-glucoside (cichoriin), fertaric acid, acacetin-7-O-d-glucoside, and acacetin-7-O-d-glucuronic acid, were isolated and demonstrated protective effects against oxidant-induced damage in HepG2 cells (Abdallah et al., Citation2016). A specific combination of the metabolites identified in L. spinosa can be considered as the active moiety against pain. Pain is the bridge between the two disciplines, as in many instances, it is a result of redox stress and inflammation that lead to cytokine secretion.

  12. Majorana syriaca L. is traditionally used by local Bedouin in treating toothache. In vitro academic studies reported antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic activities of the species (Husein et al., Citation2014). The major volatile and semi-volatile metabolites of M. syriaca include alpha-pinene, beta-myrecene, o-cymene, p-cymene, gamma-terpinene, thymol, and carvacrol, in amounts depending on harvesting time and location (Abu-Lafi et al., Citation2008; Cala et al., Citation2021). Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity was found as an effective treatment for gout and other Xanthine oxidase-related disorders (Hudaib et al., Citation2011). Although the active compound in M. syriaca against toothache and gout pain is still unknown, pain is suggested as a bridge between traditional medicine and academic knowledge for this species.

  13. Peganum harmala L. is used in traditional medicine practiced by the local Bedouin for treating toothache. According to academic models, the species contains antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities (Abbas et al., Citation2021). Analytical studies on the chemical composition of P. harmala showed that the most important constituents of this species are beta-carboline alkaloids such as harmalol, harmaline, and harmine (Moloudizargari et al., Citation2013). Yet, it is still unknown which of the compounds entail the activity against toothache and inflammation control. Both ache and inflammation may be the bridge between traditional treatment and academic studies.

  14. Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb & Berthel. is utilized by local Bedouin against arthritis (chronic inflammation). A recent study pointed to anti-inflammatory activities of R. raetam, whose metabolites include cyclitols, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, and sterols (Benkhouili et al., Citation2022). Future studies should focus on assessing the compounds that are responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of the R. raetam. Both disciplines tackle inflammation.

  15. Scirpoides holoschoenus (L.) Soják is used by the local Bedouin population for hemorrhage/blood clot. According to academic research, S. holoschoenus contains stilbenes with proven beneficial effects, such as cardioprotection (Mittas et al., Citation2022). The strong antioxidant activity of S. holoschoenus extracts may be attributed to its high level of phenolic compounds (Popescu et al., Citation2016). Phytochemical investigations of dichloromethane and methanol extracts of roots and rhizomes of S. holoschoenus revealed 21 stilbenes, 6 flavonoids, 6 ferulic acid derivatives, and 4 diterpenes. Among these constituents, six stilbenes, one flavonoid, one diterpene, and two new ferulic acid derivatives. In previous studies, a few stilbenes, partly monoprenylated (2-prenyl-3,5,4′-trimethoxystilbene, 2-prenyl-3-hydroxy-5,4′-dimethoxystilbene, 2-prenyl-3,4′-dihydroxy-5-methoxystilbene, 3,5,4′-trimethoxystilbene, E and Z resveratrol), and some phenolic compounds (caffeic, chlorogenic, cinnamic, gallic, and vanillic acids) were identified in roots of this species (Mittas et al., Citation2022). Yet, it is still unknown which compounds possess beneficial therapeutic activities. We suggest that treating blood clot in traditional medicine and cardioprotective activity in academic studies can bridge between these disciplines.

  16. Solenostemma arghel (Delile) Hayne is used by local Bedouin populations in treating colon (large intestine) disorders. Academic research showed that S. arghel decreases colon inflammation and colon cancer, attenuates liver steatosis, improves lipid profile, modulates adipokines activities, increases β-oxidation gene expression, decreases expression of lipogenesis-related genes, reduces inflammation, and lessens lipid peroxidation derangement (El-Shiekh et al., Citation2019). Among the S. arghel metabolites are flavonoid glycosides (6,7-dihydroxy-dihydrolinalool 3-O-beta-glucopyranoside, and 6,7-dihydroxy-dihydrolinalool 7-O-beta-glucopyranoside). Pregnane glucoside was also isolated and assigned as pregn-5-ene-3,14-beta-dihydroxy-7,20-dione 3-O-beta-glucopyranoside, alongside with the known compounds benzyl alcohol O-beta-apiofuranosyl-(1–>6)-beta-glucopyranoside, 2-phenylethyl O-alpha-arabinopyranosyl-(1–>6)-beta-glucopyranoside, astragalin and kaempferol-3-O-alpha-rhamnopyranosyl-(1–>2)-beta-glucopyranoside), and phenolic acids (El-Shiekh et al., Citation2021; Ounaissia et al., Citation2016). Future studies should assess the activity mechanisms according to specific compound. Both disciplines describe S. arghel as a treatment for colon disorders.

  17. Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. is considered as ‘survival food’ in traditional medicine practiced by the local Bedouin. The species contains metabolites that support several physiological systems and generate antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, anticholinesterase, and wound-healing activity. The metabolites of T. aphylla include cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids, and steroids. They also contain gallic and ellagic acid, isoferulic acid, 3-O-beta-glucopyranoside, glycosylated isoferulic acid, and novel phenolics, such as dehydrodigallic acid dimethyl ester and tamarixetin 3,3’-disodium sulfate, hydrolyzable tannins, and ellagitannin tamarixellagic acid. The academic identification of T. aphylla as active against many disease models, accords with the traditional classification of the species as ‘survival food’ (see Alshehri et al., Citation2022). Future studies should focus on specific metabolites that make this species a ‘survival food’.

  18. Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) Link is used in traditional medicine of the local Bedouin against constipation. In vitro screening has shown that T. apollinea contains metabolites with anti-candida activity, whereas many candida patients suffer from constipation and irritable bowel syndrome (Ashmawy et al., Citation2022; Iovene et al., Citation2017). The activity of T. apollinea against candida and constipation may be explained by findings indicating that its seeds contain essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, and squalene (Górnaś et al., Citation2020). Candida and constipation link between academic and traditional disciplines.

  19. Teucrium capitatum L. is traditionally used by local Bedouin for wound healing. Academic studies of wound’s in in vivo models showed accelerated healing of wounds treated with this species (Chabane et al., Citation2020). The wound healing activity of T. capitatum metabolites call for more studies in order to identify the active compounds among the identified metabolites [hydrocarbon and oxygenated monoterpenes, hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes, hydrocarbon monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and monoterpenes (limonene, α-pinene,(E)-nerolidol, β-pinene and myrcene), α-trans-bergamotene, humulene epoxide II, and δ-cadinene] (Chabane et al., Citation2020; Maccioni et al., Citation2021). Wound healing is the common use in both traditional treatment and academic studies.

  20. Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. is utilized by local Bedouin populations in treating digestive disorders. Studies of Z. spina-christi metabolites showed in vivo prevention of chronic colitis, as well as anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and in vitro antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activities (Almeer et al., Citation2018; Dkhil et al., Citation2018). The metabolites content of Z. spina-christi includes the flavonoids quercetin, hyperoside, rutin, and quercetin-3-O-[beta-xylosyl-(1-2)-alpha-rhamnoside] 4’-O-alpha- rhamnoside (Shahat et al., Citation2001), which may explain these activities. Digestive disorders and chronic colitis can be regarded as a bridge between traditional uses and academic knowledge.

Table 2. Coupled traditional use and academic knowledge on Saint Catherine’s medicinal plants

4. Bridging between plant’s traditional use and academic knowledge: Insights and conclusions

This study surveys traditional knowledge and modern information regarding the therapeutic or biomedical uses of plants native to the Saint Catherine Protectorate, and evaluates the potential for bridging between the two disciplines. The assessed uses were wound healing, pain relief, inflammation control, digestive disorder treatment, chronic colitis prevention, bowel damage care, Candida control, constipation treatment, blood clot prevention, cardioprotective therapy, etc.

Overall, more than 200 native plant species were surveyed in this study. Vegetation species with identified traditional and/or modern uses were sorted according to categories of organ-related disorders and their related medical fields. For many of the plant species, we identified uses that fitted two or more categories. The categories included (1) internal medicine; (2) intestine/gastroenterology; (3) ear, nose, throat/otorhinolaryngology; (4) head/neurology; (5) teeth/dentistry; (6) eyes/ophthalmology; (7) heart/cardiology; (8) fertility/venereology; (9) joint, nerves, muscles/orthopedics; (10) skin, wounds/dermatology; and (11) blood/hematology (Figure ). Due to a certain similarity and substantial overlap between the categories of internal medicine and intestine/gastroenterology, and for the purpose of simplicity, we hereby combine them into one inclusive category, entitled as internal medicine. Within this combined field, a total of 59 species were located, of which 21 (36%) for traditional use only, 16 (27%) for modern use only, and 22 (37%) for both of the disciplines. For the ear, nose, throat/otorhinolaryngology category, a total of 19 species were located, of which 18 (95%) for traditional use only, and 1 (5%) for modern use only. For the head/neurology category, a total of eight species were located, of which five (62%) for traditional use only, two (25%) for modern use only, and one (13%) for both of the disciplines. For the teeth/dentistry category, a total of 12 species were located, all of which for traditional use only. For the ear, eyes/ophthalmology category, a total of nine species were located, all of which for traditional use only. For the heart/cardiology category, a total of three species were located, of which two (67%) for traditional use only, and one (33%) for modern use only. For the fertility/venereology category, a total of 14 species were located, all of which for traditional use only. For the joint, nerves, muscles/orthopedics category, a total of 19 species were located, of which 18 (95%) for traditional use only, and 1 (5%) for modern use only. For the skin, wounds/dermatology category, a total of 29 species were located, of which 18 (62%) for traditional use only, 3 (10%) for modern use only, and 8 (28%) for both of the disciplines. For the blood/hematology category, a total of six species were located, of which five (83%) for traditional use only, and one (17%) for modern use only.

Figure 1. Medicinal/Therapeutic plant species’ use, according to categories of organ-related disorders and their related medical fields (in black script), where spp. in blue script indicates traditional/ethnic knowledge; spp. in red script indicates modern/academic knowledge; and spp. in green script indicates both of the disciplines.

Figure 1. Medicinal/Therapeutic plant species’ use, according to categories of organ-related disorders and their related medical fields (in black script), where spp. in blue script indicates traditional/ethnic knowledge; spp. in red script indicates modern/academic knowledge; and spp. in green script indicates both of the disciplines.

We acknowledge the fact that receiving information only from two key informants may have introduced bias to the data. One way or another, bibliographic information on ethnic use of plants not mentioned by the key informants was found only for few more species, demonstrating the high reliability of the data gathered on site. Specifically, in addition to the 90 species identified by the local key informants as medicinal plants, the bibliographic survey in the PubMed database revealed traditional therapeutic uses for additional eight species native to the Saint Catherine protectorate, which are under medicinal utilizations elsewhere across the rest of the Sinai Peninsula, the remainder of Egypt’s territory, the Jordanian Kingdom, or the Arabian Peninsula. These species are (in alphabetic order) Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) DC. for treating infections (SPNI, Citation2017); Lavandula coronopifolia Poir. and Lavandula pubescens Decne. that are used for treating a range of internal disorders (Abdoul-Latif et al., Citation2022; Al-Badani et al., Citation2017); Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne. for treating several diseases including cancer (Abu-Darwish & Efferth, Citation2018); Moringa peregrine Fiori that is used for treating a wide range of internal disorders, infections, skin irritations, etc (Senthilkumar et al., Citation2018);. Senna alexandria Mill., which is used for treating internal disorders (SPNI, Citation2017); Thymelaea hirsute (L.) Endl., which is used for treating skin irritations and wounds (Alkaraki et al., Citation2021); and Urginea maritima (L.) Stearn that is used for treating sore throat (El-Seedi et al., Citation2013).

Overall, results of this study suggest that vegetation species native to Saint Catherine Protectorate, which have been traditionally utilized by the local Bedouin community as medicinal plants, hold the promise of the ‘wisdom of the desert’ for discovering new leads for drugs. Thorough research of this promise may become a novel track for drug developments in the future. Specifically, knowledge of the unique compounds of plant metabolites may assist in identifying the constituents that determine the specific plant activities against a wide range of human diseases. Progressing this track may provide an added value of co-fostering nature conservation and related economic activities (e.g. eco-tourism) across the region. As such, this track should be promoted by both conservationists and policymakers, simultaneously sustaining environmental quality and empowering the local Bedouin community.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the two key informants (their names are kept with the authors) of the Jabaliya who generously shared knowledge regarding traditional use of medicinal plants and the respective therapeutic practices. The Dead Sea and Arava Science Center is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology. The authors are thankful to Michelle Finzi for proofreading of the manuscript.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data will be made available according to request.

Additional information

Funding

No funding was received for this study.

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