124
Views
30
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Model of human refractive error development

&
Pages 41-52 | Published online: 02 Jul 2009

References

  • Smith MS. Evolutionary Genetics. Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press; 272–303.
  • Ong E, Ciuffreda KJ. Nearwork-induced transient myo-pia - a critical review. Doc. Ophthalmol. 1995;91:57–85.
  • Ong E, Ciuffreda KJ. Accommodation, Nearwork, and Myopia. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric Extension Program Foundation, Inc; 1997.
  • Ciuffreda KJ, Wallis D. Myopes exhibit increased sus-ceptibility to nearwork-induced transient myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1998;39:1797–1803.
  • Wallman J. Can myopia be prevented? In 14th Biennial Research to Prevent Blindness Science Writers Seminar in Ophthalmology. New York, NY: Research to Prevent Blindness; 1997:50–52.
  • Birnbaum MH. Optometric management of nearpoint vision disorders, Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1993:303–309.
  • Ciuffreda KJ. Accommodation and its anomalies. In: Charman WN. Vision and Visual Dysfunction: Visual Op-tics and Instrumentation, Vol. 1, London: Macmillan; 1991:231–279.
  • Ciuffreda KJ. Accommodation, pupil, and presbyopia. In: Benjamin WJ. Borish's Clinical Refraction, Phila-delphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co; 1998:77–120.
  • Ciuffreda KJ, Kenyon RV. Accommodative vergence and accommodation in normals, amblyopes, and strabismics. In: Schor CM, Ciuffreda, KJ. Vergence Eye Movements: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Boston, MA: Butterworths; 1983:101–173.
  • Schaeffel F, Troilo D, Wallman J, Howland HC. Devel-oping eyes that lack accommodation grow to compen-sate for imposed defocus. Vis. Neurosci. 1990;4:177–183.
  • Smith EL, Hung LF, Harwerth RS. Effects of optically induced blur on the refractive status of young monkeys. Vis. Res. 1994;34:293–301.
  • Grosvenor T, Flom MC, eds. Refractive Anomalies - Research and Clinical Applications. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1991.
  • Christiansen AM, Wallman J. Evidence that increased scleral growth underlies visual deprivation myopia in chicks. Invest. Ophthal. Vis. Sci. 1991;32:2134–2150.
  • Drexler W, Findl 0, Schmetterer L, Hitzenberger CK, Fercher AF. Eye elongation during accommodation in humans: differences between emmetropes and myopes. Invest. Ophthal. Vis. Sci. 1998;39: 2140–2147.
  • Gwiazda J, Thorn F, Bauer J, Held R. Myopic children show insufficient accommodative response to blur. In-vest. Ophthal. Vis. Sci. 1993a;34:690–694.
  • Schaeffel F, Howland HC. Mathematical model of emmetropization in the chicken, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1988;5:2080–2086.
  • Medina A. A model of emmetropization, the effect of corrective lenses. Acta Ophthalmol. 1987;65:585–571.
  • Flitcroft DI. A model of the contribution of oculomotor and optical factors to emmetropization and myopia. Vis. Res. 1998;38:2869–2879.
  • Hung GK, Semmlow JL. Static behavior of accommo-dation and vergence: computer simulation of an inter-active dual-feedback system. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Engin. 1980;27:439–447.
  • Hung GK. Adaptation model of accommodation and vergence. Ophthal. Physiol Opt. 1992;12:319–326.
  • Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ, Rosenfield M. Proximal con-tribution to a linear static model of accommodation and vergence. Ophthal. Physiol. Opt. 1996;16:31–41.
  • Mackie CA, Howland HC. Extension of the Flitcroft model of emmetropization: inclusion of pupil size. Invest. Ophthal. Vis. Sci. 1998;39 (suppl):5279.
  • Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ. Adaptation model of nearwork-induced transient myopia. Ophthal. Physiol. Opt. In press.
  • McBrien NA, Millodot M. The effect of refractive error on the accommodative response gradient. Ophthal. Physiol. Opt. 1986;6:145–149.
  • Hung GK. Techniques in the quantitative analysis of the focusing and binocular fixation systems. In Leondes CT, ed. Computer Techniques and Biotechnology Systems. Longhorn, PA: Gordon and Beach; in press.
  • Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ. Accommodative oscillation can enhance average accommodative response. IEEE Trans. Sys. Man Cyber. 1982;12:594–598.
  • Krishnan VV, Stark L. Integral control in accommoda-tion. Comput. Prog. Biomed. 1975;4:237–245.
  • Thompson HE. The Dynamics of Accommodation in Primates. Ph.D. Dissertation, Berkeley, CA: Univ. of Ca-lif. at Berkeley: 1975.
  • McBrien NA, Millodot M. The relationship between tonic accommodation and refractive error. Invest. Ophthal. Vis. Sci. 1987;28:997–1004.
  • Scammon RE, Armstrong EL. On the growth of the human eyeball and optic nerve. J. Comp Neurol. 1925;38:165–219.
  • Erhlich DL, Atkinson J, Braddick 0., Bobier W, Durden K. Reduction of infant myopia: a longitudinal cyclopegic study. Vis. Res. 1995;35: 1313–1324.
  • Gwiazda J, Thorn F, Bauer J, Held R. Emmetropization and the progression of manifest refraction in children fol-lowed from infancy to puberty. Clin. Vis. Sci. 1993b;8: 337–344.
  • Slataper FJ. Age norms of refraction and vision. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1950;43;466–481.
  • Rosner J. Hyperopia. In Grosvenor T, Flom MC, eds. Refractive Anomalies. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heine-mann; 1991:121–130.
  • Atkinson J, Braddick 0, Bobier B, Anker S, Ehrlich D, King J, Watson P, Moore A. Two infant vision screen-ing programmes: prediction and prevention of strabis-mus and amblyopia from photo- and videorefractive screening. Eye 1996;10: 189–198.
  • Bennett AG, Rabbetts RB. Clinical Visual Optics, Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1989:75.
  • Sorsby A, Leary GA. A longitudinal study of refractionand its components during growth. Med. Res. Council Special Report Series no. 309. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office; 1970.
  • Goss DA, Wickham MG. Retinal-image mediated growth as a mechanism for juvenile onset myopia and for emmetropization. Doc. Ophthalmol. 1995;90,341–375.
  • Grosvenor T, Goss DA. Clinical Management of Myo-pia. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1999.
  • Hung GK. Sensitivity analysis of the stimulus-response function of a static nonlinear accommodation model. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Engin. 1998;45:335–341.
  • Ingram RM, Arnold PE, Dally S, Lucas J. Emmetro-pization, squint, and reduced visual acuity after treatment. Brit. J. Ophthalmol. 1991;75:414–416.
  • Rosenfield M, Gilmartin B. Myopia and nearwork: cau-sation or merely association? In Rosenfield M, Gilmartin B, eds. Myopia and Nearwork. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1998:193–206.
  • Goldschmidt E. On the etiology of myopia - and epide-miological study. Acta Ophthalmol. 1968;98 (suppl): 1–72.
  • Sperduto RD, Seigel D, Roberts J, Rowland M. Preva-lence of myopia in the United States. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1983;101:405–407.
  • Grosvenor T. A review and a suggested classification system for myopia on the basis of age-related prevalence and age of onset. Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt. 1987;64: 545–554.
  • Lin LLK, Shih YF, Lee YC, Hung PT, Hou PK. Changes in ocular refraction and its components among medical students - a 5-year longitudinal study. Optom. Vis. Sci. 1996;73: 495–498.
  • Mantyjarvi MI. Changes of refraction in school children. Arch. Ophthal. 1985;103:790–792.
  • Hofstetter HW. Some interrelationships of age, refrac-tion, and rate of refractive change. Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 1954;31:161–169.
  • Hirsch MJ. Relationship between refraction and enter-ing school and rate of change during the first six yearsof school: an interim report from the Ojai Longitudinal Study. Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 1962;39: 51–59.
  • Jiang BC, Woessner WM. Increase in axial length is responsible for late-onset myopia. Optom. Vis. Sci. 1996;73:231–234.
  • Siegwart JT Jr, Norton TT. Regulation of the mechani-cal properties of tree shrew sclera by the visual envi-ronment. Vis. Res. 1999; 39:387–407.
  • Stark L. Neurological Control Systems, Studies in Bioen-gineering. New York: Plenum Press; 1968:205–219.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.