Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk

References

• Mant A, Rendle V, Hall W, et al. Making new choices about antidepressants in Australia: the long view 1975–2002. Med J Aust 2004; 181: s21–s24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McManus P, Mant A, Mitchell P, Montgomery W, Marley J, Auland M. Recent trends in the use of antidepressant drugs in Australia 1990–1998. Med J Aust 2000; 173: 458–461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World drug report: volume 1. United Nations, Geneva 2006
   Google Scholar
• Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2004. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2005
   Google Scholar
• Boot B, McGregor I, Hall W. MDMA (Ecstasy) neurotoxicity: assessing and communicating the risks. Lancet 2000; 355: 1818–1821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reneman L, Schilt T, de Win M, et al. Memory function and serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism in ecstasy (MDMA) users. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 2006; 20: 389–399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quednow B, Jessen F, Kuhn K, Maier W, Daum I, Wagner M. Memory deficits in abstinent MDMA (Ecstasy) users: neuropsychological evidence of frontal dysfunction. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 20: 373–384
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zakzanis K, Campbell Z. Memory impairment in now abstinent MDMA users and continued users: a longitudinal follow-up. Neurology 2006; 66: 740–741
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. Neurotoxicity of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA; Ecstasy) in humans: how strong is the evidence for persistent brain damage?. Addiction 2006; 101: 348–361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolla K, McCann U, Ricaurte G. Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA (‘Ecstasy’) users. Neurology 1998; 51: 1532–1537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole J, Sumnall H. Altered states: the clinical effects of Ecstasy. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2003; 98: 35–58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daumann J, Till B, Fischermann T, Rezk M, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E. Intensity dependence of auditory evoked dipole source activity in polydrug ecstasy users: evidence from an 18 months longitudinal study. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 2006; 20: 236–244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easton N, Marsden C. Ecstasy: are data consistent between species and can they translate to humans?. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 2006; 20: 193–209
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Torre R, Farre M. Neurotoxicity of MDMA (ecstasy): the limitations of scaling from animals to humans. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2004; 25: 505–508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Garza R, Fabrizio K, Gupta A. Relevance of rodent models on intravenous MDMA self-administration to human MDMA consumption patterns. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 10: 1–10
   Google Scholar
• Green R, Mechan A, Elliot J, O'Shea E, Colado I. The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’). Pharmacol Rev 2003; 55: 463–508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuori E, Henry J, Ojanpera I, et al. Death following ingestion of MDMA (ecstasy) and moclobemide. Addiction 2003; 98: 365–368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller P, Korey W. Death by ‘Ecstasy’: the serotonin syndrome. Ann Emerg Med 1998; 32: 377–380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oesterheld J, Armstrong S, Cozza K. Ecstasy: pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions. Psychosomatics 2004; 45: 84–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott A. Recreational Ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002; 71: 837–844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricaurte G, McCann U. Recognition and management of complications of new recreational drug use. Lancet 2005; 365: 2137–2145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smilkstein M, Smolinske S, Rumack B. A case of MAO inhibitor/MDMA interaction: agony after ecstasy. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1987; 25: 149–159
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillman P. A review of serotonin toxicity data: implications for the mechanisms of antidepressant drug action. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 59: 1046–1051
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunkley E, Isbister G, Sibbritt D, Dawson A, Whyte I. The Hunter Serotonin Toxicity Criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity. Qld J Med 2003; 96: 635–642
   Google Scholar
• Birmes P, Coppin D, Schmitt L, Lauque D. Serotonin syndrome: a brief review. Can Med Assoc J 2003; 168: 1439–1442
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillman P. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, opioid analgesics and serotonin toxicity. Br J Anaesth 2005; 95: 434–441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyer E, Shannon M. Current concepts: the serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1112–1120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ener R, Meglathery S, Van Decker W, Gallagher R. Serotonin syndrome and other serotonergic disorders. Pain Med 2003; 4: 63–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall M, Buckley N. Serotonin syndrome. Aust Prescriber 2003; 26: 62–63
   Google Scholar
• Sampson E. Serotonin syndrome: potentially fatal but difficult to recognize. Br J Gen Pract 1999; 49: 867–868
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mechan A, Esteban B, O'Shea E, Elliot J, Colado M, Green A. The pharmacology of the acute hyperthermic response that follows administration of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) to rats. Br J Pharmacol 2002; 135: 170–180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liechti M, Bauman C, Gamma A, Vollenweider F. Acute psychological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) are attenuated by the serotonin uptake inhibitor citalopram. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000; 22: 513–521
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liechti M, Vollenweider F. The serotonin uptake inhibitor citalopram reduces acute cardiovascular and vegetative effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘Ecstasy’) in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 2000; 14: 269–274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudelsky G, Nash J. Carrier-mediated release of serotonin by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetaminme: implications for serotonin-dopamine interactions. J Neurochem 1996; 66: 243–249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hekmatpanah C, Peroutka S. 5-Hydroxytryptamine uptake blockers attenuate the 5-hydroxytryptamine-releasing effect of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and related agents. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 177: 95–98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt C. Neurotoxicity of the psychedelic amphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1987; 240: 240–247
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez V, Camarero J, Esteban B, Peter M, Green A, Colado M. The mechanisms involved in the long-lasting neuroprotective effect of fluoxetine against MDMA (‘ecstasy’)-induced degeneration of 5-HT nerve endings in rat brain. Br J Pharmacol 2001; 134: 46–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malberg J, Sabol K, Seiden L. Co-administration of MDMA with drugs that protect against MDMA neurotoxicity produces different effects on body temperature in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1996; 278: 258–267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl S, Pradko J, Haight B, Modell J, Rockett C, Learned-Coughlin S. A review of the neuropharmacology of Bupropion, a dual norepinephrine and dopamine re-uptake inhibitor. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 6: 159–166
   Google Scholar
• Huether G, Zhou D, Ruther E. Causes and consequences of the loss of serotonergic presynapses elicited by the consumption of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) and its congeners. J Neural Transm 1997; 104: 771–794
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams H, Dractu L, Taylor R, Roberts M, Oyefeso A. Saturday night fever’: ecstasy related problems in a London accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1998; 15: 322–326
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feinberg S. Combining stimulants with monoamine oxidase inhibitors: a review of uses and one possible additional indication. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 1520–1524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schifano F. A bitter pill. Overview of ecstasy (MDMA, MDA) related fatalities. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 173: 242–248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aronson S, Black J, McDougle C, et al. Serotonergic mechanisms of cocaine effects in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1995; 119: 179–185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li M-Y, Yan Q-S, Coffey L, Reith M. Extracellular dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats during intracerebral dialysis with cocaine and other monoamine uptake blockers. J Neurochem 1996; 66: 559–568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason P, Morris V, Balcezak T. Serotonin syndrome: presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79: 201–209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorm A, Christensen H, Griffiths K, Parslow R, Rodgers B, Blewitt K. Effectiveness of complementary and self-help treatments for anxiety disorders. Med J Aust 2004; 181: s29–s46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das Y, Bagchi M, Bagchi D, Preuss H. Safety of 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan. Toxicol Lett 2004; 150: 111–122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juhl J. Fibromyalgia and the serotonin pathway. Altern Med Rev 1998; 3: 367–375
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gwaltney-Brant S, Albretsen J, Khan S. 5-Hydroxytryptophan toxicosis in dogs: 21 cases. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000; 216: 1937–1940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprouse J, Bradberry C, Roth R, Aghajanian G. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced release of serotonin and inhibition of dorsal raphe cell firing: potentiation by L-tryptophan. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 178: 313–320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaskey G. Possible interaction between an MAOI and ‘ecstasy’. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 411–412
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freezer A, Salem A, Irvine J. Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘Ecstasy’) and para-methoxyamphetamine on striatal 5-HT when co-administered with moclobemide. Brain Res 2005; 1041: 48–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copeland J, Dillon P, Gascoigne M. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals. NDARC Technical Report 201. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2004
   Google Scholar
• Copeland J, Dillon P, Gascoigne M. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals. Addict Behav 2006; 31: 367–370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ang-Lee M, Moss M, Yuan C. Herbal medicines and perioperative care. JAMA 2001; 286: 208–216
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst E. The risk-benefit profile of commonly used herbal therapies: Ginko, St. John's wort, Ginseng, Echinacea, Saw Palmetto, and Kava. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136: 42–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fugh-Berman A. Herb–drug interactions. Lancet 2000; 355: 134–138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh Y. Potential for interaction of kava and St. John's wort with drugs. J Ethnopharmacol 2005; 100: 108–113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butterweck V. Mechanism of action of St. John's wort in depression: what is known?. CNS Drugs 2003; 17: 539–562
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee S, Bhattacharya S, Wonnemann M, Singer A, Muller W. Hyperforin as possible antidepressant component of Hypericum extracts. Life Sci 1998; 63: 499–510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller W, Singer E, Wonnemann M. Hyperforin represents the neurotransmitter reuptake inhibiting constituent of Hypericum extract. Pharmacopsychiatry 1998; 31: 16–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silbergeld E, Hruska R. Lisuride and LSD: dopaminergic and serotonergic interactions in the ‘serotonin syndrome’. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1979; 65: 233–237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trulson M, Ross C, Jacobs B. Behavioural evidence for the stimulation of CNS serotonin receptors by high doses of LSD. Psychopharmacol Commun 1976; 2: 149–164
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rossi SE. Australian medicines handbook 2005. Australian Medicines Handbook, Adelaide 20052
   Google Scholar
• Buckley N. The health report: serotonin syndrome. Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Radio National 2003
   Google Scholar
• Gowing L, Henry-Edwards S, Irvine R, Ali R. The health effects of ecstasy: a literature review. Drug Alcohol Rev 2002; 21: 53–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White J, Bochner F, Irvine R. The agony of ‘ecstasy’. Med J Aust 1997; 166: 117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinner S, Fowler G, Fischer J, Stafford J, Degenhardt L. Monitoring the ecstasy market in Australia—challenges and successes. Party Drug Trends Bulletin 2005 2005; April: 1–6
   Google Scholar
• Hegadoren K, Baker G, Bourin M. 3,4-Methylenedioxy analogues of amphetamine: defining the risks to humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1999; 23: 539–553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stafford J, Degenhardt L, Agaliotis M, et al. Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2004: findings from the Party Drugs Initiative (PDI). NDARC monograph 57. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2005
   Google Scholar
• Blum R, Beuhring T, Wunderlich M, Resnick M. Don't ask, they won't tell: the quality of adolescent health screening in five practice settings. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 1767–1772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman P, McCullough D, Saitz R. Screening and intervention for illicit drug abuse. A national survey of primary care physicians and psychiatrists. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 248–251
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kamerow D, Pincus H, Macdonald D. Alcohol abuse, other drug abuse, and mental disorders in medical practice. JAMA 1986; 255: 4–7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maheux B, Haley N, Rivard M, Gervais A. Do physicians assess lifestyle health risks during general medical examinations? A survey of general practitioners and obstetrician–gynecologists in Quebec. Journal of the Canadian Medical Association 1999; 160: 1830–1834
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen R. The love drug: marching to the beat of ecstasy. Haworth Medical Press, New York 1998
   Google Scholar
• Stafford J, Degenhardt L, Dunn M, et al. Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2005: findings from the Party Drugs Initiative (PDI). NDARC monograph no. 58. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2006
   Google Scholar
• Allott K, Redman J. Patterns of use and harm reduction practices of ecstasy users in Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006; 82: 168–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong T, Boyer E. Club drugs, smart drugs, raves, and circuit parties: an overview of the club scene. Pediatr Emerg Care 2002; 18: 216–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weir E. Raves: a review of the culture, the drugs and the prevention of harm. Can Med Assoc J 2000; 162: 1843–1848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones A, Volans G. Management of self poisoning. Br Med J 1999; 319: 1414–1417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bluelight. Bluelight. Amsterdam: Bluelight 2007. [Cited 10 July 2006]. Available from URL: http://www.bluelight.ru/vb/home.php.
   Google Scholar
• Enlighten. Enlighten harm reduction. Melbourne: Enlighten Harm Reduction 2007 [Cited 10 July 2006]. Available from URL: http://www.enlighten.org.au/index.php.
   Google Scholar
• Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. The confounding problem of polydrug use in recreational ecstasy/MDMA users: a brief overview. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 2006; 20: 188–193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cottler L, Womack S. Ecstasy abuse and dependence among adolescents and young adults: applicability and reliability of DSM-IV criteria. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2001; 16: 627–633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degenhardt L, Agaliotis M, White B, Stafford J. NSW trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2004: findings from the Party Drugs Initiative (PDI). NDARC technical report no. 221. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2005
   Google Scholar
• Topp L, Hando J, Dillon P, Roche A, Solowij N. Ecstasy use in Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999; 55: 105–115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar