81
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review articles

The neuropsychology of cannabis and other substance use in schizophrenia: review of the literature and critical evaluation of methodological issues

, PhD, , PhD &
Pages 869-884 | Received 30 May 2007, Published online: 06 Jul 2009

References

  • Tracy JI, Josiassen RC, Bellack A. Neuropsychology of dual diagnosis: understanding the combined effects of schizophrenia and substance use disorders. Clin Psychol Rev 1995; 15: 67–97
  • Barnes M, Lawford BR, Burton SC, et al. Smoking and schizophrenia: is symptom profile related to smoking and which antipsychotic medication is of benefit in reducing cigarette use?. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2006; 40: 575–580
  • Dolan SL, Sacco KA, Termine A, et al. Neuropsychological deficits are associated with smoking cessation treatment failure in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2004; 70: 263–275
  • Evins AE, Deckersbach T, Cather C, et al. Independent effects of tobacco abstinence and bupropion on cognitive function in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66: 1184–1190
  • Faucher AL. Antisaccades, smoking and schizophrenia: evidence for a cognitive benefit of nicotine. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 2001; 62: 1B
  • George TP, Vessicchio JC, Termine A, et al. Effects of smoking abstinence on visuospatial working memory function in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002; 26: 75–85
  • Harris JG, Kongs S, Allensworth D, et al. Effects of nicotine on cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29: 1378–1385
  • Jacobsen LK, D'Souza DC, Mencl WE, Pugh KR, Skudlarski P, Krystal JH. Nicotine effects on brain function and functional connectivity in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 850–858
  • Klein C, Andresen B. On the influence of smoking upon smooth pursuit eye movements of schizophrenics and normal controls. J Psychophysiol 1991; 5: 361–369
  • Larrison–Faucher AL, Matorin AA, Sereno AB. Nicotine reduces antisaccades errors in task impaired schizophrenic subjects. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004; 28: 505–516
  • Levin ED, Wilson W, Rose JE, McEvoy J. Nicotine-haloperidol interactions and cognitive performance in schizophrenics. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 15: 429–436
  • Mosnik DM. Effects of cigarette smoking and withdrawal on cognitive performance and psychopathology in patients with schizophrenia compared to normal controls. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 2001; 61: 9B
  • Muggli L. Understanding the relationship between smoking and cognitive functioning in schizophrenia. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 2005; 66: 4B
  • Myers CS, Robles O, Kakoyannis AN, et al. Nicotine improves delayed recognition in schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology 2004; 174: 334–340
  • Riala K, Hakko H, Isohanni M, Jokelainen J, Weiser M, Rasanen P. Poor premorbid school performance is associated with later cigarette smoking among schizophrenia patients. Psychiatry Res 2005; 137: 137–141
  • Sacco KA, Termine A, Seyal A, et al. Effects of cigarette smoking on spatial working memory and attentional deficits in schizophrenia: involvement of nicotinic receptor mechanisms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 649–659
  • Sacco KA, Termine A, Dudas MM, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in nonsmokers with schizophrenia: effects of a nicotinic antagonist. Schizophr Res 2006; 85: 213–221
  • Sandyk R. Cigarette smoking: effects on cognitive functions and drug-induced parkinsonism in chronic schizophrenia. Int J Neurosci 1993; 70: 193–197
  • Smith RC, Singh A, Infante M, Khandat A, Kloos A. Effects of cigarette smoking and nicotine nasal spray on psychiatric symptoms and cognition in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002; 27: 479–497
  • Taiminen TJ, Salokangas RKR, Saarijarvi S, et al. Smoking and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: a pilot study. Addict Behav 1998; 23: 263–266
  • Tracy JI, Monaco C, Giovannetti T, Abraham G, Josiassen R. The effects of ‘acute’ cigarette smoking on cognitive functioning in chronic schizophrenia. Cognit Neuropsychiatry 2000; 5: 193–217
  • Allen DN, Goldstein G, Aldarondo F. Neurocognitive dysfunction in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and alcoholism. Neuropsychology 1999; 13: 62–68
  • Bowie CR. Neurocognition, symptomatology, and social-adaptive functioning in alcohol-abusing schizophrenia patients. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 2003; 63: 11B
  • Bowie CR, Serper MR, Riggio S, Harvey PD. Neurocognition, symptomatology, and functional skills in older alcohol-abusing schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 2005; 31: 175–182
  • Goldstein G, Allen DN, Sanders RD. Sensory-perceptual dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia and comorbid alcoholism. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2002; 24: 1010–1016
  • Liraud F, Verdoux H. Effect of comorbid substance use on neuropsychological performance in subjects with psychotic or mood disorders. Encephale 2002; 28:160–168 (in French).
  • Manning V, Wanigaratne S, Best D, Strathdee G, Schrover I, Gossop M. Screening for cognitive functioning in psychiatric outpatients with schizophrenia, alcohol dependence, and dual diagnosis. Schizophr Res 2007; 91: 151–158
  • Meydan J, Liu X, Hasin D. Alcohol and drug use in schizophrenia as predictors of functional impairment. Schizophr Res 2005; 77: 105–106
  • Mohamed S, Bondi M, Kasckow JW, Golshan S, Jeste DV. Neurocognitive functioning in dually diagnosed middle aged and elderly patients with alcoholism and schizophrenia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006; 21: 711–718
  • Nazzaro DM. Neuropsychological differences between patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and comorbid schizophrenia and alcohol dependence. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 2002; 63: 5B
  • Nixon SJ, Hallford HG, Tivis RD. Neurocognitive function in alcoholic, schizophrenic, and dually diagnosed patients. Psychiatry Res 1996; 64: 35–45
  • Pencer A, Addington J. Substance use and cognition in early psychosis. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2003; 28: 48–54
  • Reardon ML. Prediction of comorbid alcohol use disorders using factors derived from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale in an inpatient psychiatric hospital. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 2005; 65: 12B
  • Remy CJ. The relationship between performance on memory tests and treatment efficacy for patients with comorbid schizophrenia and substance use disorders. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 1999; 60: 4B
  • Snyder AG. The neurocognitive functioning of dually diagnosed patients with schizophrenia and a substance abuse disorder. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 1998; 59: 6-B
  • Thoma RJ, Hanlon FM, Miller GA, et al. Neuropsychological and sensory gating deficits related to remote alcohol abuse history in schizophrenia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2006; 12: 34–44
  • Cooper L. The relationship between neuropsychological functioning and length of abstinence in schizophrenic cocaine users. Dissertation Abstr Int B Sci Eng 1996; 57: 6B
  • Cooper L, Liberman D, Tucker D, Neuchterlein KH, Tsuang J, Barnett HL. Neurocognitive deficits in the dually diagnosed with schizophrenia and cocaine abuse. Psychiatr Rehabil Skills 1999; 3: 231–245
  • Copersino ML, Serper MR, Vadhan N, et al. Cocaine craving and attentional bias in cocaine-dependent schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res 2004; 128: 209–218
  • Serper MR, Bergman A, Copersino ML, Chou JCY, Richarme D, Cancro R. Learning and memory impairment in cocaine-dependent and comorbid schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res 2000; 93: 21–32
  • Serper MR, Copersino ML, Richarme D, Vadhan N, Cancro R. Neurocognitive functioning in recently abstinent, cocaine-abusing schizophrenic patients. J Subst Abuse 2000; 11: 205–213
  • Sevy S, Kay SR, Opler L, van Praag HM. Significance of cocaine history in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1990; 178: 642–648
  • Smelson D, Davis CW, Di Pano R, Johnson V, Losonczy MF, Ziedonis D. Executive and motor skill functioning among cocaine-dependent schizophrenics and non-drug abusing schizophrenics. J Nerv Ment Dis 2002; 190: 200–202
  • Smelson DA, Davis CW, Eisenstein N, et al. Cognitive disparity in schizophrenics with and without cocaine dependency. J Subst Abuse Treat 2003; 24: 75–79
  • Barch DM, Carter CS. Amphetamine improves cognitive function in medicated individuals with schizophrenia and in healthy volunteers. Schizophr Res 2005; 77: 43–58
  • Goldberg TE, Bigelow LB, Weinberger DR, Daniel DG, Kleinman JE. Cognitive and behavioural effects of the coadministration of dextroamphetamine and haloperidol in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 78–84
  • Murakami T, Nakagome K, Kamio S, et al. The effects of benzodiazepines on event-related potential indices of automatic and controlled processing in schizophrenia: a preliminary report. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26: 651–661
  • Addington J, Addington D. Substance abuse and cognitive functioning in schizophrenia. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1997; 22: 99–104
  • Carey KB, Carey MP, Simons JS. Correlates of substance use disorder among psychiatric outpatients: focus on cognition, social role functioning, and psychiatric status. J Nerv Ment Dis 2003; 191: 300–308
  • Cleghorn JM, Kaplan RD, Szechtman B, Szechtman H, Brown GM, Franco S. Substance abuse and schizophrenia: effect on symptoms but not on neurocognitive function. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52: 26–30
  • Herman M. Neurocognitive functioning and quality of life among dually diagnosed and non-substance abusing schizophrenia inpatients. Int J Ment Health Nurs 2004; 13: 282–291
  • Joyal CC, Hallé P, Lapierre D, Hodgins S. Drug abuse and/or dependence and better neuropsychological performance in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2003; 63: 297–299
  • McCleery A, Addington J, Addington D. Substance misuse and cognitive functioning in early psychosis: a 2 year follow-up. Schizophr Res 2006; 88: 187–191
  • Potvin S, Briand C, Prouteau A, et al. CANTAB explicit memory is less impaired in addicted schizophrenia patients. Brain Cogn 2005; 59: 38–42
  • Sevy S, Robinson DG, Solloway S, et al. Correlates of substance misuse in patients with first-episode schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2001; 104: 367–374
  • Thoma P, Wiebel B, Daum I. Response inhibition and cognitive flexibility in schizophrenia with and without comorbid substance use disorder. Schizophr Res 2007; 92: 168–180
  • D'Souza DC, Perry E, MacDougall L, et al. The psychotomimetic effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29: 1558–1572
  • D'Souza DC, Abi-Saab WM, Madonick S, et al. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biol Psychiatry 2005; 57: 594–608
  • Kumra S, Thaden E, DeThomas C, Kranzler H. Correlates of substance abuse in adolescents with treatment-refractory schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Schizophr Res 2005; 73: 369–371
  • Stirling J, White C, Lewis S, et al. Neurocognitive function and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: A 10-year follow-up of an epidemiological cohort. Schizophr Res 2003; 65: 75–86
  • Stirling J, Lewis S, Hopkins R, White C. Cannabis use prior to first onset psychosis predicts spared neurocognition at 10-year follow-up. Schizophr Res 2005; 75: 135–137
  • Jockers-Scherübl MC, Wolf T, Radzei N, et al. Cannabis induces different cognitive changes in schizophrenic patients and healthy controls. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007; 31: 1054–1063
  • Sevy S, Burdick KE, Visweswaraiah H, et al. Iowa Gambling Task in schizophrenia: a review and new data in patients with schizophrenia and co-occurring cannabis use disorders. Schizophr Res 2007; 92: 74–84
  • Duke P, Pantelis C, McPhillips MA, Barnes TRE. Comorbid non-alcohol substance misuse among people with schizophrenia: epidemiological study in ventral London. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 179: 509–513
  • Kavanagh DJ, Waghorn G, Jenner L, et al. Demographic and clinical correlates of comorbid substance use disorders in psychosis: multivariate analyses from an epidemiological sample. Schizophr Res 2004; 66: 115–124
  • Mueser KT, Yarnold PR, Rosenberg SD, Swett C, Miles KM, Hill D. Substance use disorder in hospitalised severely mentally ill psychiatric patients: prevalence, correlates, and subgroups. Schizophr Bull 2000; 26: 179–192
  • Arseneault L, Cannon M, Witton J, Murray RM. Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination and evidence. Br J Psychiatry 2004; 184: 110–117
  • Chambers RA, Krystal JH, Self DW. A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 71–83
  • Negrete JC, Gill K. Cannabis and schizophrenia: an overview of the evidence to date. Marijuana and Medicine, GG Nahas, KM Sutin, D Harvey, S Agurrel. Humana Press, New Jersey 1999; 671–681
  • van Os J, Bak M, Hanssen M, Bijl RV, de Graaf R, Verdoux H. Cannabis use and psychosis: a longitudinal population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 2002; 156: 319–327
  • Arseneault L, Cannon M, Poulton R, Murray R, Caspi A, Moffitt TE. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ 2002; 325: 1212–1213
  • Smit F, Bolier L, Cuijpers P. Cannabis use and the risk of later schizophrenia: a review. Addiction 2004; 99: 425–430
  • Pantelis C, Maruff P. The cognitive neuropsychiatric approach to investigating the neurobiology of schizophrenia and other disorders. J Psychosom Res 2002; 53: 655–664
  • Ashton CH. Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief review. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 178: 101–106
  • Solowij N. Cannabis and cognitive functioning. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeUK 1998
  • Goodarzi MA, Wykes T, Hemsley DR. Cerebral lateralization of global-local processing in people with schizotypy. Schizophr Res 2000; 45: 115–121
  • John CH, Hemsley DR. Gestalt perception in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992; 241: 215–221
  • Peters ER, Pickering AD, Kent A, et al. Perceptual organization deficits in psychotic patients. Psychiatry Res 2000; 110: 125–135
  • Emrich HM, Leweke FM, Schneider U. Towards a cannabinoid hypothesis of schizophrenia: cognitive impairments due to dysregulation of the endogenous cannabinoid system. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997; 66: 803–807
  • Leweke FM, Schneider U, Radwan M, Schmidt E, Emrich HM. Different effects of nabilone and cannabidiol on binocular depth inversion in man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000; 66: 175–181
  • Schneider U, Leweke FM, Mueller-Vahl KR, Emrich HM. Cannabinoid/anandamide system and schizophrenia: is there evidence for association?. Pharmacopsychiatry 1998; 31(Suppl)110–113
  • Antonova E, Sharma T, Morris R, Kumari V. The relationship between brain structure and neurocognition in schizophrenia: a selective review. Schizophr Res 2004; 70: 117–145
  • Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, Santangelo S, Knapp PH, Tsuang MT. Are schizophrenic men at higher risk for developmental deficits than schizophrenic women? Implications for adult neuropsychological functions. J Psychiatr Res 1994; 28: 483–498
  • Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003; 42: 327–360
  • O'Leary DS, Block RI, Koeppel JA, et al. Effects of smoking marijuana on brain perfusion and cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002; 26: 802–816
  • Vik PW, Cellucci T, Jarchow A, Hedt J. Cognitive impairment in substance abuse. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004; 27: 97–109
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental Disorders, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1994.
  • Pope HG, Gruber AJ, Hudson JI, Huestis M, Yurgelun-Todd D. Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 909–915
  • Richtand NM, Woods SC, Berger SP, Strakowski SM. D3 dopamine receptor, behavioural sensitisation, and psychosis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2001; 25: 427–443
  • Brown J, Kranzler HR, Del Boca F. Self-reports by alcohol and drug abuse inpatients: factors affecting reliability and validity. Br J Addict 1992; 87: 1013–1024
  • Leduc PA, Mittleman G. Schizophrenia and psychostimulant abuse: a review and re-analysis of clinical evidence. Psychopharmacology 1995; 121: 407–427
  • Wilkins JN, Shaner AL, Patterson CM, Setoda D, Gorelick D. Discrepancies between patient report, clinical assessment, and urine analysis in psychiatric patients during inpatient admission. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991; 27: 149–154
  • Potkin SG, Fleming K, Jin Y, Gulasekaram B. Clozapine enhances neurocognition and clinical symptomatology more than standard neuroleptics. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2001; 21: 479–483
  • Potvin S, Stip E, Roy J-Y. Clozapine, quetiapine and olanzapine among addicted schizophrenic patients: towards testable hypotheses. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 18: 121–132
  • Velligan DI, Newcomer J, Pultz J, et al. Does cognitive function improve with quetiapine in comparison to haloperidol?. Schizophr Res 2002; 53: 239–248
  • Paleacu D, Shutzman A, Giladi N, Herman T, Simon ES, Hausdorff JM. Effects of pharmacological therapy on gait and cognitive function in depressed patients. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007; 30: 63–71
  • Hessen E, Lossius MI, Reinvang I, Gjerstad L. Influence of major antiepileptic drugs on attention, reaction time, and speed of information processing: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled withdrawal study of seizure-free epilepsy patients receiving monotherapy. Epilepsia 2006; 47: 2038–2045
  • Barker MJ, Greenwood KM, Jackson M, Crowe SF. An evaluation of persisting cognitive effects after withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2005; 11: 281–289
  • Bottiggi KA, Salazar JC, Yu L, et al. Long-term cognitive impact of anticholinergic medications in older adults. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006; 14: 980–984
  • Basso MR, Nasrallah HA, Olson SC, Bornstein RA. Neuropsychological correlates of negative, disorganised and psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1998; 31: 99–111
  • Zakzanis K. Neuropsychological correlates of positive vs negative schizophrenic symptomatology. Schizophr Res 1998; 29: 227–233
  • Dolan RJ, Bench CJ, Brown RG, Scott LC, Frackowiak RS. Neuropsychological dysfunction in depression: the relationship to regional cerebral blood flow. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 849–857
  • Klasik A, Janas-Kozik M, Krupka-Matuszczyk I. Influence of anxiety on cognitive functions’ disturbances in adolescents and young adults diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. Przeglad Lekarski 2006; 63 (Suppl 1):35–43 (in Polish).
  • Bellino S, Rocca P, Patria L, et al. Relationship of age at onset with clinical features and cognitive functions in a sample of schizophrenia patients. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 908–914
  • Russell AJ, Munro JC, Jones PB, Hemsley DR, Murray RM. Schizophrenia and the myth of intellectual decline. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 635–639
  • Lidow MS, Elsworth JD, Goldman-Rakic PS. Down-regulation of the D1 and D5 dopamine receptors in the primate prefrontal cortex by chronic treatment with antipsychotic drugs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997; 281: 597–603
  • Schmitt A, Zink M, Petroianu G, May B, Braus DF, Henn FA. Decreased gene expression of glial and neuronal glutamate transporters after chronic antipsychotic treatment in rat brain. Neurosci Lett 2003; 347: 81–84
  • Gray JA, Roth BL. Paradoxical trafficking and regulation of 5-HT2A receptors by agonists and antagonists. Brain Res Bull 2001; 56: 441–451
  • Hietala J, Kuoppamäki M, Majasuo H, Pälvimäki E-P, Laakso A, Syvälahti E. Sertindole is a serotonin 5-HT2C inverse agonist and decreases agonist but not antagonist binding to 5-HT2C receptors after chronic treatment. Psychopharmacology 2001; 157: 180–187
  • Richtand NM, Welge JA, Levant B, et al. Altered behavioural response to dopamine D3 receptor agonists 7-OH-DPAT and PD 128907 following repetitive amphetamine administration. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28: 1422–1432
  • Pope HG, Gruber AJ, Hudson JI, Cohane G, Huestis MA, Yurgelun-Todd D. Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association?. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003; 69: 303–310
  • de Leon J, Diaz FJ, Rogers T, Browne D, Dinsmore L. Initiation of daily smoking and nicotine dependence in schizophrenia and mood disorders. Schizophr Res 2002; 56: 47–54
  • Leonard S, Adler LE, Benhammou K, et al. Smoking and mental illness. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2001; 70: 561–570
  • Lyon ER. A review of the effects of nicotine on schizophrenia and antipsychotic medications. Psychiatr Serv 1999; 50: 1346–1350
  • Smith RC, Infante M, Ali A, Nigam S, Kotsaftis A. Effects of cigarette smoking on psychopathology scores in patients with schizophrenia: an experimental study. Subst Abus 2001; 22: 175–186
  • Breese CR, Lee MJ, Adams CE, et al. Abnormal regulation of high affinity nicotinic receptors in subjects with schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000; 23: 351–364
  • Dalack G, Healy DJ, Meador-Woodruff JH. Nicotine dependence in schizophrenia: clinical phenomena and laboratory findings. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1490–1501
  • Griffith JM, O'Neill JE, Petty F, Garver D, Young D, Freedman R. Nicotinic receptor desensitisation and sensory gating deficits in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1998; 44: 98–106
  • George TP, Verrico CD, Picciotto MR, Roth RH. Nicotinic modulation of mesoprefrontal dopamine neurons: pharmacologic and neuroanatomic characterization. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2000; 295: 58–66
  • Paton C, Beer D. Caffeine: the forgotten variable. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 2001; 5: 231–236
  • Kruger A. Chronic psychiatric patients’ use of caffeine: pharmacological effects and mechanisms. Psychol Rep 1996; 78: 915–923
  • Simmons DH. Caffeine and its effect on persons with mental disorders. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 1996; 10: 116–122
  • Schapkin SA. Influence of caffeine on physiological and cognitive functions of humans. Hum Physiol 2002; 28: 144–150
  • Hughes JR, McHugh P, Holtzman S. Caffeine and schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv 1998; 49: 1415–1417
  • Rihs M, Müller C, Baumann P. Caffeine consumption in hospitalised psychiatric patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996; 246: 83–92
  • Sakurai Y, Kanazawa I. Acute effects of cigarettes in non-deprived smokers on memory, calculation and executive functions. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2002; 17: 369–373
  • Corcoran C, Malaspina D. Traumatic brain injury and risk for schizophrenia. Int J Ment Health 2001; 30: 17–32
  • Freudenreich O, Weiner RD, McEvoy JP. Clozapine-induced electroencephalogram changes as a function of clozapine serum levels. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42: 132–137
  • Hyde TM, Weinberger DR. Seizures and schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1997; 23: 611–622
  • Malaspina D, Goetz RR, Friedman JH, et al. Traumatic brain injury and schizophrenia in members of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder pedigrees. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 440–446
  • Malik PA, Husted J, Chow EWC, Bassett AS. Childhood head injury and expression of schizophrenia in multiply affected families. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 231–236
  • Keshavan MS, Sujata M, Mehra A, Montrose DM, Sweeney JA. Psychosis proneness and ADHD in young relatives of schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Res 2002; 59: 85–92
  • Tzelepis A, Schubiner H, Warbasse L. Differential diagnosis and psychiatric comorbidity patterns in adult attention deficit disorder. A comprehensive guide to attention deficit disorder in adults: research, diagnosis, and treatment, KG Nadeau. Brunner/Mazel, PhiladelphiaUS 1995; 35–37
  • Richardson AJ. Dyslexia and schizotypy. Schizotypy: implications for illness and health, G Claridge. Oxford University Press, London 1997; 171–201
  • Verbaten M, van Engeland H. (Neuro)physiologic similarities between childhood developmental disorders and schizophrenia. Advances in the neurobiology of schizophrenia. Wiley series on clinical and neurobiological advances in psychiatry, JA Den Boer, HGM Westenberg, HM van Praag. John Wiley & Sons, Oxford 1995; 1: 369–400
  • Virtue C, Iqbal N, Masur D, Schwartz B. Developmental disorder or schizophrenia?. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150: 521
  • Hemsley DR. Attention and information processing in schizophrenia. Br J Soc Clin Psychol 1976; 15: 199–209
  • Hemsley DR. Perception and cognition in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia: origins, processes, treatment, and outcome, RL Cromwell, CR Snyder. Oxford University Press, London 1993; 135–150
  • Hemsley DR. A simple (or simplistic?) cognitive model for schizophrenia. Behav Res Ther 1993; 31: 633–645
  • Mueser KT, McGurk SR. Schizophrenia. Lancet 2004; 363: 2063–2072
  • Peters ER, Nunn JA, Pickering AD, Hemsley DR. Perceptual organization deficits in psychotic patients. Psychiatry Res 2002; 110: 125–135
  • Seaton BE, Goldstein G, Allen DN. Sources of heterogeneity in schizophrenia: the role of neuropsychological functioning. Neuropsychol Rev 2001; 11: 45–66
  • Semple DM, Ramsden F, McIntosh AM. Reduced binocular depth inversion in regular cannabis users. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003; 75: 789–793
  • Solowij N, Stephens RS, Roffman RA, et al. Cognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment. JAMA 2002; 287: 1123–1131
  • Ruff RM, Allen CC. Ruff 2 and 7 Selective Attention Test: professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, San Francisco 1996
  • Spreen O, Strauss E. A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and commentary2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1998
  • Budney AJ, Hughes JR. The cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006; 19: 233–238
  • Kouri EM, Pope HG. Abstinence symptoms during withdrawal from chronic marijuana use. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 8: 483–492
  • Budney AJ, Moore BA, Vandrey RG, Hughes JR. The time course and significance of cannabis withdrawal. J Abnorm Psychol 2003; 112: 393–402
  • Grant I, Gonzalez R, Carey CL, Natarajan L, Wolfson T. Non-acute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: a meta-analytic study. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2003; 9: 679–689
  • Kathmann M, Bauer U, Schlicker E, Göthert M. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor-mediated inhibition of NMDA- and kainite-stimulated noradrenaline and dopamine release in the brain. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 1999; 359: 466–470
  • Pistis M, Ferraro L, Pira L, et al. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol decreases extracellular GABA and increases extracellular glutamate and dopamine levels in the rat prefrontal cortex: an in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res 2002; 948: 155–158
  • Loeber RT, Yurgelun-Todd DA. Human neuroimaging of acute and chronic marijuana use: implications for frontocerebellar dysfunction. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 1999; 14: 291–304
  • Diana M, Melis M, Gessa GL. Increase in meso-prefrontal dopaminergic activity after stimulation of CB1 receptors by cannabinoids. Eur J Neurosci 1998; 10: 2825–2830
  • Jentsch JD, Andrusiak E, Tran A, Bowers MB, Roth RH. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases prefrontal cortical catecholaminergic utilization and impairs spatial working memory in the rat: blockade of dopaminergic effects with HA966. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 16: 426–432
  • Acquas E, Pisanu A, Marrocu P, Goldberg SR, Di Chiara G. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol enhances cortical and hippocampal acetylcholine release in vivo: a microdialysis study. Eur J Pharmacol 2001; 419: 155–161
  • Verrico CD, Jentsch JD, Dazzi L, Roth RH. Systemic, but not local, administration of cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonists modulate prefrontal cortical acetylcholine efflux in the rat. Synapse 2003; 48: 178–183
  • Ferraro L, Tomasini MC, Gessa GL, Bebe BW, Tanganelli S, Antonelli T. The cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 regulates glutamate transmission in rat cerebral cortex: an in vivo and in vitro study. Cereb Cortex 2001; 11: 728–733
  • Kim JJ, Mohamed S, Andreasen NC, et al. Regional neural dysfunctions in chronic schizophrenia studied with positron emission tomography. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 542–548
  • Potkin SG, Alva G, Fleming K, et al. A PET study of the pathophysiology of negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 227–237
  • Vance ALA, Velakoulis D, Maruff P, Wood PD, Pantelis C. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and schizophrenia: what have we learnt?. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2000; 34: 14–25
  • Velakoulis D, Pantelis C. What have we learned from functional imaging studies in schizophrenia? The role of frontal, striatal and temporal areas. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1996; 30: 195–209
  • Wood SJ, Berger G, Velakoulis D, et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in first episode psychosis and ultra high-risk individuals. Schizophr Bull 2003; 29: 831–843
  • Breivogel CS, Childers SR. The functional neuroanatomy of brain cannabinoid receptors. Neurobiol Dis 1998; 5: 417–431
  • Gifford AN, Makriyannis A, Volkow ND, Gatley J. In vivo imaging of the brain cannabinoid receptor. Chem Phys Lipids 2002; 121: 65–72
  • Ilan AB, Smith ME, Gevins A. Effects of marijuana on neurophysiological signals of working and episodic memory. Psychopharmacology 2004; 176: 214–222
  • Shah YB, Prior MJW, Dixon AL, Morris PG, Marsden CA. Detections of cannabinoid agonist evoked increase in BOLD contrast in rats using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Neuropharmacology 2004; 46: 379–387
  • Gessa GL, Melis M, Muntoni AL, Diana M. Cannabinoids activate mesolimbic dopamine neurons by an action on cannabinoid CB1 receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 341: 39–44
  • Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M. Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003; 71: 37–48
  • Hall W. Cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Rev 1998; 17: 433–444
  • Hall W. Reducing the harms caused by cannabis use: the policy debate in Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001; 62: 163–174
  • Voruganti LNP, Slomka P, Zabel AM, Awad AG. Cannabis induced dopamine release: an in-vivo SPECT study. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2001; 107: 173–177
  • Scarr E, Copolov DL, Dean B. A proposed pathological model in the hippocampus of subjects with schizophrenia. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2001; 28: 70–73
  • Crook JM, Tomaskovic-Crook E, Copolov DL, Dean B. Decreased muscarinic receptor binding in subjects with schizophrenia: a study of the human hippocampal formation. Soc Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 381–388
  • Friedman JI, Adler DN, Davis KL. The role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology of cognitive disorders: potential applications to the treatment of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 46: 1243–1252
  • Akinshola BE, Taylor RE, Ogunseitan AB, Onaivi ES. Anandamide inhibition of recombinant AMPA receptor subunits in Xenopus oocytes is increased by forskolin and 8-brumo-cylic AMP. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 1999; 360: 242–248
  • Darmani NA. Cannabinoids of diverse structure inhibit two DOI-induced 5-HT2A receptor-mediated behaviors in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2001; 68: 311–317
  • Costa E, Cheney DL, Murray TF. Levonantradol-induced inhibition of acetylcholine turnover in rat hippocampus and striatum. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21(Suppl 8–9)256S–261
  • Giuffrida A, Leweke FM, Gerth CW, et al. Cerebrospinal anandamide levels are elevated in acute schizophrenia and are inversely correlated with psychotic symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29: 2108–2114
  • Parrott AC, Gouzoulis-Meyfrank E, Rodgers J, Solowij N. Ecstasy/MDMA and cannabis: the complexities of their interactive neuropsychobiological effects. J Psychopharmacol 2004; 18: 572–575
  • Zuardi AW, Morais SL, Guimaraes FS, Mechoulam R. Antipsychotic effect of cannabidiol. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 485–486

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.