Whole Brain Size and General Mental Ability: A Review

REFERENCES

• Anderson B. Evidence from the rat for a general factor that underlies cognitive performance and that relates to brain size: Intelligence?. Neuroscience Letters 1993; 153: 98–102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreasen N. C., Ehrhardt J. C., Swayze V. W., Alliger R. J., Yuh W. T. C., et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1990; 47: 35–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreasen N. C., Flaum M., Swayze V., O'Leary D. S., Alliger R., Cohen G., et al. Intelligence and brain structure in normal individuals. American Journal of Psychiatry 1993; 150: 130–134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ankney C. D. Sex differences in relative brain size: The mismeasure of woman, too?. Intelligence 1992; 16: 329–336
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ankney C. D. Sex differences in brain size and mental ability: Comments on R. Lynn and D. Kimura. Personality and Individual Differences 1995; 18: 423–424
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aylward E. H., Minshew N. J., Field K., Sparks B. F., Singh N. Effects of age on brain volume and head circumference in autism. Neurology 2002; 59: 175–183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates T. C. Fluctuating asymmetry and intelligence. Intelligence 2007; 35: 41–46
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beals K. L., Smith C. L., Dodd S. M. Brain size, cranial morphology, climate, and time machines. Current Anthropology 1984; 25: 301–330
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bean R. B. Some racial peculiarities of the Negro brain. American Journal of Anatomy 1906; 5: 353–432
   Google Scholar
• Beckett C., Maughan B., Rutter M., Castle J., Colvert E., Groothues C., et al. Do the effects of early severe deprivation on cognition persist into early adolescence? Findings from the English and Romanian adoptees study. Child Development 2006; 77: 696–711
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergvall N., Iliadou A., Tuvemo T., Cnattingius S. Birth characteristics and risk of low intellectual performance in early adulthood: Are the associations confounded by socioeconomic factors in adolescence or familial effects?. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 714–721
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogaert A. F., Rushton J. P. Sexuality, delinquency and r/K reproductive strategies: Data from a Canadian university sample. Personality and Individual Differences 1989; 10: 1071–1077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouchard T. J., Jr., McGue M. Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. Journal of Neurobiology 2003; 54: 4–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broca P. Sur le volume et la forme du cerveau suivant les individus et suivant les races. Bulletin Société d'Anthropologie Paris 1861; 2: 139–207, 301–321, 441–446
   Google Scholar
• Broca P. Sur les crânes de la caverne de l'Homme Mort (Loere). Revue d'Anthropologie 1873; 2: 1–53
   Google Scholar
• Brody N. Intelligence, et al. Academic Press, New York 1992
   Google Scholar
• Broman S. H., Nichols P. L., Kennedy W. Preschool IQ: Prenatal and Early Development Correlates, et al. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1975
   Google Scholar
• Broman S. H., Nichols P. L., Shaughnessy P., Kennedy W. Retardation in Young Children, et al. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1987
   Google Scholar
• Castellanos F. X., Giedd J. N., Eckburg P., Marsh W. L., Vaituzis A. C., Kaysen D., et al. Quantitative morphology of the caudate nucleus in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1791–1796
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colom R., Jung R. E., Haier R. J. Distributed brain sites for the g-factor of intelligence. NeuroImage 2006a; 31: 1359–1365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colom R., Jung R. E., Haier R. J. Finding the g-factor in brain structure using the method of correlated vectors. Intelligence 2006b; 34: 561–570
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darwin C. The Descent of Man, et al. Murray, London 1871
   Google Scholar
• Deaner R. O., Isler K., Burkart J., van Schaik C. Overall brain size, and not encephalization quotient, best predicts cognitive ability across non-human primates. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution 2007; 70: 115–124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary I. J. Looking Down on Human Intelligence: From Psychometrics to the Brain., et al. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK 2000
   Google Scholar
• Deary I. J., Der G. Reaction time, age, and cognitive ability: Longitudinal findings from age 16 to 63 years in representative population samples. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 2005; 12: 187–215
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary I. J., Ferguson K. J., Bastin M. E., Barrow W. S., Reid L. M., Seckl J. R., et al. Skull size and intelligence, and King Robert Bruce's IQ. Intelligence 2007; 35: 519–525
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dekaban A. S., Sadowsky D. Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: Relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights. Annals of Neurology 1978; 4: 345–356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Der G., Deary I. J. Age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: Results from the United Kingdom Health and Lifestyle Survey. Psychology and Aging 2006; 21: 62–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond M. C. Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Anatomy of the Brain, et al. Free Press, New York 1988
   Google Scholar
• Dobson-Stone C., Gatt J. M., Kuan S. A., Grieve S. M., Gordon E., Williams L. M., et al. Investigation of MCPH1 G37995C and ASPM A44871G polymorphisms and brain size in a healthy cohort. NeuroImage 2007; 37: 394–400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunbar R. I. M., Shultz S. Understanding primate brain evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 2007; 362: 649–658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egan V., Chiswick A., Santosh C., Naidu K., Rimmington J. E., Best J. J. K. Size isn't everything: A study of brain volume, intelligence and auditory evoked potentials. Personality and Individual Differences 1994; 17: 357–367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egan V., Wickett J. C., Vernon P. A. Brain size and intelligence: Erratum, addendum, and correction. Personality and Individual Differences 1995; 19: 113–115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernhart C. B., Marler M. R., Morrow-Tlucak M. Size and cognitive development in the early preschool years. Psychological Reports 1987; 61: 103–106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estabrooks G. H. The relation between cranial capacity, relative cranial capacity and intelligence in school children. Journal of Applied Psychology 1928; 12: 524–529
   Google Scholar
• Evans P. D., Gilbert S. L., Mekel-Bobrov N., Vallender E. J., Anderson J. R., Vaez-Azizi L. M., et al. Microcepahlin, a gene regulating brain size, continues to evolve adaptively in humans. Science 2005; 309: 1717–1719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher R. A. Statistical Methods for Research Workers, 14th ed., et al. Hafner Press, New York 1970
   Google Scholar
• Flashman L. A., Andreasen N. C., Flaum M., Swayze V. W., II. Intelligence and regional brain volumes in normal controls. Intelligence 1998; 25: 149–160
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn J. R. What Is Intelligence?, et al. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2007
   Google Scholar
• Furlow F. B., Armijo-Prewitt T., Gangestad S. W., Thornhill R. Fluctuating asymmetry and psychometric intelligence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 1997; 264: 823–829
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galton F. Hereditary Genius, et al. Macmillan, London 1869
   Google Scholar
• Galton F. Inquiries Into Human Faculty and Its Development, et al. Macmillan, London 1883
   Google Scholar
• Galton F. Head growth in students at the University of Cambridge. Nature 1888; 38: 14–15
   Google Scholar
• Geary D. C. The Origin of Mind: Evolution of Brain, Cognition, and General Intelligence, et al. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 2005
   Google Scholar
• Gignac G., Vernon P. A., Wickett J. C. Factors influencing the relationship between brain size and intelligence. The Scientific Study of General Intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen., H. Nyborg. Elsevier, London 2003; 93–106
   Google Scholar
• Good C. D., Johnsrude I. S., Ashburner J., Henson R. N. A., Friston K. J., Frackowiak R. S. J. A voxel-based morphometric study of ageing in 465 normal adult brains. NeuroImage 2001; 14: 21–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon H. L. Amentia in the East African. Eugenics Review 1934; 25: 223–235
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gould S. J. Morton's ranking of races by cranial capacity. Science 1978; 200: 503–509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould S. J. The Mismeasure of Man, et al. Norton, New York 1981
   Google Scholar
• Gould S. J. The Mismeasure of Man, 2nd ed., et al. Norton, New York 1996
   Google Scholar
• Gur R. C., Mozley P. D., Resnick S. M., Gottlieb G. L., Kohn M., Zimmerman R., et al. Gender differences in age effect on brain atrophy measured by magnetic resonance imaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 1991; 88: 2845–2849
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur R. C., Turetsky B. I., Matsui M., Yan M., Bilkur W., Hughett P., et al. Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: Correlations with cognitive performance. Journal of Neuroscience 1999; 19: 4065–4072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haier R. J., Chueh D., Touchette P., Lott I., Buchsbaum M., Macmillan D., et al. Brain size and cerebral glucose metabolic rate in nonspecific mental retardation and Down Syndrome. Intelligence 1995; 20: 191–210
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haier R., Jung R. E., Yeo R. A., Head K., Alkire M. T. Structural brain variation and general intelligence. NeuroImage 2004; 23: 425–433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton J. A. The Association Between Brain Size and Maze Ability in the White Rat, et al. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California at Berkeley. 1935
   Google Scholar
• Harvey I., Persaud R., Ron M. A., Baker G., Murray R. M. Volumetric MRI measurements in bipolars compared with schizophrenics and healthy controls. Psychological Medicine 1994; 24: 689–699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haug H. Brain sizes, surfaces, and neuronal sizes of the cortex cerebri. American Journal of Anatomy 1987; 180: 126–142
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henneberg M., Budnik A., Pezacka M., Puch A. E. Head size, body size and intelligence: Intraspecific correlations in Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo 1985; 36: 207–218
   Google Scholar
• Herrnstein R. J., Murray C. The Bell Curve, et al. Free Press, New York 1994
   Google Scholar
• Ho K. C., Roessmann U., Straumfjord J. V., Monroe G. Analysis of brain weight: I & II. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 1980; 104: 635–645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofman M. A. The fractal geometry of convoluted brains. Journal fur Hirnforschung 1991; 32: 103–111
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hofman M. A., Swaab D. F. Sexual dimorphism of the human brain: Myth and reality. Experimental Clinical Endocrinology 1991; 98: 161–170
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holloway R. L. Within-species brain-body weight variability: A reexamination of the Danish data and other primate species. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1980; 53: 109–121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooton E. A. The American Criminal, Vol. 1, et al. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1939
   Google Scholar
• Irwing P., Lynn R. Sex differences in means and variability on the Progressive Matrices in university students: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychology 2005; 96: 505–524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irwing P., Lynn R. Is there a sex difference in IQ scores?. Nature 2006; 442: 31–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanovic D. M., Leiva B. P., Castro C. G., Olivares M. G., Jansana J. M. M., Castro V. G., et al. Brain development parameters and intelligence in Chilean high school graduates. Intelligence 2004; 32: 461–479
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanovic D. M., Olivares M. G., Castro C. G., Ivanovic R. M. Nutrition and learning in Chilean school age children: Chile's Metropolitan Region Survey 1986–1987. Nutrition 1996; 12: 321–328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanovic R. M., Forno H. S., Castro C. G., Ivanovic D. M. Intellectual ability and nutritional status assessed through anthropometric measurements of Chilean school-age children from different socioeconomic status. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 2000; 39: 35–59
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson D. N., Rushton J. P. Males have greater g: Sex differences in general mental ability from 100,000 17- to 18-year-olds on the Scholastic Assessment Test. Intelligence 2006; 34: 479–486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen A. R. Psychometric g related to differences in head size. Personality and Individual Differences 1994; 17: 597–606
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen A. R. The g Factor, et al. Praeger, Westport, CT 1998
   Google Scholar
• Jensen A. R. Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences, et al. Elsevier, Oxford 2006
   Google Scholar
• Jensen A. R., Johnson F. W. Race and sex differences in head size and IQ. Intelligence 1994; 18: 309–333
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen A. R., Sinha S. N. Physical correlates of human intelligence. Biological Approaches to the Study of Human Intelligence, P. A. Vernon. Ablex, Norwood, NJ 1993; 139–242
   Google Scholar
• Jerison H. J. Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence, et al. Academic Press, New York 1973
   Google Scholar
• Johnson R. C., McClearn G. E., Yuen S., Nagoshi C. T., Ahern F. M., Cole R. E. Galton's data a century later. American Psychologist 1985; 40: 875–892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones P. B., Harvey I., Lewis S. W., Toone B. K., Van Os J., Williams M., et al. Cerebral ventricle dimensions as risk factors for schizophrenia and affective psychosis: An epidemiological approach to analysis. Psychological Medicine 1994; 24: 995–1011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung R. E., Haier R. J. The parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: Converging neuroimaging evidence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2007; 30: 135–154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamin L. J. The Science and Politics of IQ, et al. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1974
   Google Scholar
• Kandel E. R. Nerve cells and behavior. Principles of Neural Selection, 3rd ed., E. R. Kandel, J. H. Schwartz, T. M. Jessell. Elsevier, New York 1991
   Google Scholar
• Kareken D. A., Gur R. C., Mozley P. D., Mozley L. H., Saykin A. J., Shtasel D. L., et al. Cognitive functioning and neuroanatomic volume measures in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 1995; 9: 211–219
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimura D. Sex and Cognition, et al. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 1999
   Google Scholar
• Klein R. E., Freeman H. E., Kagan J., Yarborough C., Habicht J. P. Is big smart? The relation of growth to cognition. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 1972; 13: 219–250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolakowski D., Malina R. M. Spatial ability, throwing accuracy, and man's hunting heritage. Nature 1974; 251: 410–412
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawlor D. A., Batty G. D., Morton S. M. B., Deary I. J., Macintyre S., Ronalds G., et al. Early life predictors of childhood intelligence: Evidence from the Aberdeen children of the 1950s study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2005; 59: 656–663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubinski D. Introduction to the special section on cognitive abilities: 100 years after Spearman's (1904) “‘General intelligence,’ objectively determined and measured.”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2004; 86: 96–111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R. A nutrition theory of the secular increases in intelligence. Positive correlations between height, head size and IQ. British Journal of Educational Psychology 1989; 59: 372–377
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R. New evidence on brain size and intelligence: A comment on Rushton and Cain and Vanderwolf. Personality and Individual Differences 1990; 11: 795–797
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R. Further evidence for the existence of race and sex differences in cranial capacity. Social Behavior and Personality 1993; 21: 89–92
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R. Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: A paradox resolved. Personality and Individual Differences 1994; 17: 257–271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R. Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: A developmental theory. Intelligence 1999; 27: 1–12
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R. Race Differences in Intelligence: An Evolutionary Analysis, et al. Washington Summit Books, Augusta, GA 2006
   Google Scholar
• Lynn R., Irwing P. Sex differences on the Progressive Matrices: A meta-analysis. Intelligence 2004; 32: 481–498
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn R., Jindal S. Positive correlations between brain size and intelligence: Further evidence from India. Mankind Quarterly 1993; 34: 109–123
   Google Scholar
• MacLullich A. M. J., Ferguson K. J., Deary I. J., Seckl J. R., Starr J. M., Wardlaw J. M. Intracranial capacity and brain volumes are associated with cognition in healthy elderly men. Neurology 2002; 59: 169–174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madden J. Sex, bowers and brains. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 2001; 268: 833–838
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnusson P. K. E., Rasmussen F., Gyllensten U. B. Height at age 18 years is a strong predictor of attained education later in life: Cohort study of over 950 000 Swedish men. International Journal of Epidemiology 2006; 35: 658–663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majluf A. Desarrollo mental, postural y somatico de infants de 8, 14y 20 meses de edad, de clase socioeconomica media y baja de Lima. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicologia 1983; 15: 369–386
   Google Scholar
• Mall F. P. On several anatomical characters of the human brain, said to vary according to race and sex, with special reference to the weight of the frontal lobe. American Journal of Anatomy 1909; 9: 1–32
   Google Scholar
• Manning J. T. Digit Ratio: A Pointer to Fertility, Behavior and Health, et al. Rutgers University Press, Piscataway, NJ 2002
   Google Scholar
• Mascie-Taylor C. G. N., Gibson J. B. Social mobility and IQ components. Journal of Biosocial Science 1978; 10: 263–276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDaniel M. A. Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence 2005; 33: 337–346
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mekel-Bobrov N., Gilbert S. L., Evans P. D., Vallender E. J., Anderson J. R., Hudson R. R., et al. Ongoing adaptive evolution of ASPM, a brain size determinant in Homo sapiens. Science 2005; 309: 1720–1722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mekel-Bobrov N., Posthuma D., Gilbert S. L., Lind P., Gosso M. F., Luciano M., et al. The ongoing adaptive evolution of ASPM and Microcephalin is not explained by increased intelligence. Human Molecular Genetics 2007; 16: 600–608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morton S. G. Observations on the size of the brain in various races and families of man. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia 1849; 4: 221–224
   Google Scholar
• Murdock J., Sullivan L. R. A contribution to the study of mental and physical measurements in normal school children. American Physical Education Review 1923; 28: 209–330
   Google Scholar
• Murray C. Income Inequality and IQ, et al. American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC 1998
   Google Scholar
• Neisser U., Boodoo G., Bouchard T. J., Jr., Boykin A. W., Brody N., Ceci S. J., et al. Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist 1996; 51: 77–101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyborg H. Sex differences in g. The Scientific Study of General Intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen, H. Nyborg. Elsevier, Oxford 2003; 187–222
   Google Scholar
• Nyborg H. Sex-related differences in general intelligence g, brain size, and social status. Personality and Individual Differences 2005; 39: 497–509
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne R. T. Cranial capacity and IQ. Mankind Quarterly 1992; 32: 275–280
   Google Scholar
• Ounsted M., Moar V. A., Scott A. Associations between size and development at four years among children who were small-for-dates and large-for-dates at birth. Early Human Development 1984; 9: 259–268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packard G. C., Boardman T. J. The misuse of ratios, indices, and percentages in ecophysiological research. Physiological Zoology 1988; 61: 1–9
   Google Scholar
• Pakkenberg B., Gundersen H. J. G. Neocortical neuron number in humans: Effects of sex and age. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1997; 384: 312–320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pakkenberg H., Voigt J. Brain weight of the Danes. Acta Anatomica 1964; 56: 297–307
   Google Scholar
• Passingham R. E. Brain size and intelligence in man. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 1979; 16: 253–270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearl R. On the correlation between intelligence and the size of the head. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology 1906; 16: 189–199
   Google Scholar
• Pearl R. The weight of the Negro brain. Science 1934; 80: 431–434
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pearlson G. D., Kim W. S., Kubos K. L., Moberg P. J., Jayaram G., Bascom M. J., et al. Ventricle-brain ratio, computed tomographic density, and brain area in 50 schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 1989; 46: 690–697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson K. On the relationship of intelligence to size and shape of head, and to other physical and mental characters. Biometrika 1906; 5: 105–146
   Google Scholar
• Pennington B. F., Filipek P. A., Lefly D., Chhabildas N., Kennedy D. N., Simon J. H., et al. A twin MRI study of size variations in the human brain. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2000; 12: 223–232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters A., Schweiger L., Pellerin L., Hubold C., Oltmanns K. M., Conrad M., et al. The selfish brain: Competition for scarce resources. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2004; 28: 143–180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfefferbaum A., Mathalon D. H., Sullivan E. V., Rawles J. M., Zipursky R. B., Lim K. O. A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to late adulthood. Archives of Neurology 1994; 51: 874–887
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plomin R., DeFries J. C., McClearn G. E., McGuffin P. Behavioral Genetics, 4th ed., et al. W. H. Freeman, New York 2001
   Google Scholar
• Plomin R., Kennedy J. K. J., Craig I. W. The quest for quantitative trait loci associated with intelligence. Intelligence 2006; 34: 513–526
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollitt E., Mueller W., Liebel R. L. The relation of growth to cognition in a well-nourished preschool population. Child Development 1982; 53: 1157–1163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porteus S. D. Primitive Intelligence and Environment, et al. Macmillan, New York 1937
   Google Scholar
• Posthuma D., De Geus E. J. C., Baare W. F. C., Pol H. E. H., Kahn R. S., Boomsma D. I. The association between brain volume and intelligence is of genetic origin. Nature Neuroscience 2002; 5: 83–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raz N., Torres I. J., Spencer W. D., Millman D., Baertschi J. C., Sarpel G. Neuroanatomical correlates of age-sensitive and age-invariant cognitive abilities: An in vivo MRI investigation. Intelligence 1993; 17: 407–422
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed T. E., Jensen A. R. Cranial capacity: New Caucasian data and comments on Rushton's claimed Mongoloid-Caucasoid brain size differences. Intelligence 1993; 17: 423–431
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid R. W., Mulligan J. H. Relation of cranial capacity to intelligence. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 1923; 53: 322–331
   Google Scholar
• Reiss A. R., Abrams M. T., Singer H. S., Ross J. R., Denckla M. B. Brain development, gender and IQ in children: A volumetric study. Brain 1996; 119: 1763–1774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnick S. M., Pham D. L., Kraut M. A., Zonderman A. B., Davatzikos C. Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging studies of older adults: A shrinking brain. Journal of Neuroscience 2003; 23: 3295–3301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rindermann H. The g-factor of international cognitive ability comparisons: The homogeneity of results in PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS and IQ-tests across nations. European Journal of Personality 2007; 21: 667–706
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P. Mongoloid-Caucasoid differences in brain size from military samples. Intelligence 1991; 15: 351–359
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P. Cranial capacity related to sex, rank, and race in a stratified random sample of 6,325 U.S. military personnel. Intelligence 1992a; 16: 401–413
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P. Life history comparisons between Orientals and Whites at a Canadian university. Personality and Individual Differences 1992b; 13: 439–442
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P. Race, Evolution and Behavior: A Life-History Perspective, et al. Transaction, New Brunswick, NJ 1995
   Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P. Cranial size and IQ in Asian Americans from birth to age seven. Intelligence 1997; 25: 7–20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P. Placing intelligence into an evolutionary framework or how g fits into the r-K matrix of life history traits including longevity. Intelligence 2004; 32: 321–328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Ankney C. D. Brain size matters: A reply to Peters. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 1995; 49: 562–569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Ankney C. D. Brain size and cognitive ability: Correlations with age, sex, social class, and race. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 1996; 3: 21–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Ankney C. D. The evolution of brain size and intelligence. Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience, S. M. Platek, J. P. Keenan, T. K. Shackelford. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2007; 121–161
   Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Bons T. A., Vernon P. A., Cvorovic J. Genetic and environmental contributions to population group differences on the Raven's Progressive Matrices estimated from twins reared together and apart. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences 2007; 274: 1773–1777
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Jensen A. R. Thirty years of research on group differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, and the Law 2005; 11: 235–294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Osborne R. T. Genetic and environmental contributions to cranial capacity estimated in Black and White adolescents. Intelligence 1995; 20: 1–13
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Skuy M., Bons T. A. Construct validity of Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices for African and non-African engineering students in South Africa. International Journal of Selection and Assessment 2004; 12: 220–229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton J. P., Vernon P. A., Bons T. A. No evidence that polymorphisms of brain regulator genes Microcephalin and ASPM are associated with general mental ability, head circumference, or altruism. Biology Letters 2007; 3: 157–160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell D. A. Exponential evolution: Implications for intelligent extraterrestrial life. Advances in Space Research 1983; 3: 95–103
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schoenemann P. T., Budinger T. F., Sarich V. M., Wang W. Brain size does not predict general cognitive ability within families. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2000; 97: 4932–4937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreider E. Brain weight correlations calculated from original results of Paul Broca. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1966; 25: 153–158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreider E. Quelques corrélations somatiques des tests mentaux. Homo 1968; 19: 38–43
   Google Scholar
• Schultz A. H. Comparison of White and Negro fetuses. Scientific Papers of the Second International Congress of Eugenics: Vol. 2, Eugenics in Race and State (Plates 11 and 12), C. B. Davenport, H. F. Osborn, C. Wissler, H. H. Laughlin. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD 1923
   Google Scholar
• Schultz S., Bradbury R. B., Evans K. L., Gregory R. D., Blackburn T. M. Brain size and resource specialization predict long-term population trends in British birds. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2005; 272: 2305–2311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sen A. K., Phulia S. S., Wasnik B. K. Physical growth and intellectual level: A comparative study between scheduled caste and general caste students. Indian Journal of Current Psychological Research 1986; 1: 101–106
   Google Scholar
• Silverman I. W. Sex differences in simple visual reaction times: A historical meta-analysis. Sex Roles 2006; 54: 57–68
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmons K. Cranial capacities by both plastic and water techniques with cranial linear measurements of the Reserve Collection: White and Negro. Human Biology 1942; 14: 473–498
   Google Scholar
• Sommerville R. C. Physical, motor and sensory traits. Archives of Psychology 1924; 12: 1–108
   Google Scholar
• Sorokin P. Social Mobility, et al. Harper, New York 1927
   Google Scholar
• Spearman C. “General intelligence,” objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 1904; 15: 201–292
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spearman C. The Abilities of Man: Their Nature and Measurement, et al. Macmillan, New York 1927
   Google Scholar
• Staff R. T., Murray A. D., Deary I. D., Whalley L. T. Generality and specificity in cognitive aging: A Volumetric brain analysis. NeuroImage 2006; 30: 1433–1440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternberg R. J. Culture and intelligence. American Psychologist 2004; 59: 325–328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternberg R. J., Nokes C., Geissler P. W., Prince R., Okatcha F., Bundy D. A., et al. The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence 2001; 29: 401–418
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susanne C. On the relationship between psychometric and anthropometric traits. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1979; 51: 421–423
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susanne C., Sporcq J. Etude des correlations existent entre des tests psycho-techniques et des mensurations cephaliques. Bulletin de la Société Royale Belge d'Anthropologie et de Préhistoire 1973; 84: 59–69
   Google Scholar
• Swaab D. F., Hofman M. A. Sexual differentiation of the human brain: A historical perspective. Progress in Brain Research, G. J. De Vries, G. P. C. De Bruin, H. B. M. Uylings, M. A. Corner. Elsevier, Amsterdam 1984; 61: 361–374
   Google Scholar
• Tan U., Tan M., Polat P., Ceylan Y., Suma S., Okur A. Magnetic resonance imaging brain size/IQ relations in Turkish university students. Intelligence 1999; 27: 83–92
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Templer D. I., Arikawa H. Temperature, skin color, per capita income, and IQ: An international perspective. Intelligence 2006; 34: 121–139
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson P. M., Cannon T. D., Narr K. L., van Erp T., Poutanen V.-P., Huttunen M., et al. Genetic influences on brain structure. Nature Neuroscience 2001; 4: 1253–1258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobias P. V. Brain-size, grey matter and race—fact or fiction?. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1970; 32: 3–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todd T. W. Cranial capacity and linear dimensions, in white and Negro. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1923; 6: 97–194
   Google Scholar
• Topinard P. Anthropology, et al. Chapman and Hall, London 1878
   Google Scholar
• Tramo M. J., Loftus W. C., Stukel T. A., Green R. L., Weaver J. B., Gazzaniga M. S. Brain size, head size, and intelligence quotient in monozygotic twins. Neurology 1998; 50: 1246–1252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Valen L. Brain size and intelligence in man. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1974; 40: 417–424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vint F. W. The brain of the Kenya native. Journal of Anatomy 1934; 48: 216–223
   Google Scholar
• Voigt J., Pakkenberg H. Brain weight of Danish children. Acta Anatomica 1983; 116: 290–301
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Voyer D., Voyer S., Bryden M. P. Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin 1995; 117: 250–270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller J. H. Achievement and social mobility: Relationships among IQ score, education, and occupation in two generations. Social Biology 1971; 18: 252–259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler D. The Measurement of Intelligence, et al. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 1944
   Google Scholar
• Weinberg W. A., Dietz S. G., Penick E. C., McAlister W. H. Intelligence, reading achievement, physical size and social class. Journal of Pediatrics 1974; 85: 482–489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickett J. C., Vernon P. A., Lee D. H. In vivo brain size, head perimeter, and intelligence in a sample of healthy adult females. Personality and Individual Differences 1994; 16: 831–838
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickett J. C., Vernon P. A., Lee D. H. Relationships between factors of intelligence and brain volume. Personality and Individual Differences 2000; 29: 1095–1122
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willerman L., Schultz R., Rutledge J. N., Bigler E. D. In vivo brain size and intelligence. Intelligence 1991; 15: 223–228
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilke M., Sohn J. H., Byars A. W., Holland S. K. Bright spots: Correlations of gray matter volume with IQ in a normal pediatric population. NeuroImage 2003; 20: 202–215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witelson S. F., Beresh H., Kigar D. L. Intelligence and brain size in 100 postmortem brains: Sex, lateralization and age factors. Brain 2006; 129: 386–398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods R. P., Freimer N. B., De Young J. A., Fears S. C., Sicotte N. L., Service S. K., et al. Normal variants of Microcephalin and ASPM do not account for brain size variability. Human Molecular Genetics 2006; 15: 2025–2029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar