Self-absorption paradox is not a paradox: Illuminating the dark side of self-reflection

REFERENCES

• Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Ster, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigler, M., Neimeyer, G. J., & Brown, E. (2001). The divided self revisited: Effects of self-concept clarity and self-concept differentiation on psychological adjustment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 396–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butzer, B., & Kuiper, N. A. (2006). Relationships between the frequency of social comparisons and self-concept clarity, intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety, and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 167–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D., Heine, S. J., & Katz, I. M. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D., Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F., & Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway, M., Giannopoulos, P. C., Ciank, P., & Mendelson, M. (1993). Dysphoria and specificity in self-focused attention. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 265–268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derogatis, L. R. (1992). The brief symptom inventory (BSI), administration, scoring and procedures: Manual II: Clinical Psychometric Research.
   Google Scholar
• Donahue, E. M., Robins, R. W., Roberts, B. W., & John, O. P. (1993). The divided self: Concurrent and longitudinal effects of psychological adjustment and social roles on self-concept differentiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 834–846.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval, S., & Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self awareness. New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fejfar, M. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (2000). Effect of private self-consciousness on negative affect and self-relevant attribution: A quantitative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 132–142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank, K. A. (2002). Comment on Horowitz's (2002) “Self- and relational observation”. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 12, 128–138.
   Google Scholar
• Ghorbani, N., Watson, P. J., Krauss, S. W., Davison, H. K., & Bing, M. N. (2004). Private self-consciousness factors: Relationship with need for cognition, locus of control, and obsessive thinking in Iran and the United States. Journal of Social Psychology, 144, 359–372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, A. M., Franklin, J., & Langford, P. (2002). Self-reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self-consciousness. Social Behavior and Personality, 30, 821–836.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 3, 319–340.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T. (1996). The “self-digest”: Self-knowledge serving self-regulatory functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1062–1083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hixon, J. G., & Swann, W. B. (1993). When does introspection bear fruit? Self-reflection, self-insight, and interpersonal choices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 35–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz, M. (2002). Self- and relational observation. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 12, 115–127.
   Google Scholar
• Huffziger, S., & Kuehner, C. (2009). Rumination, distraction, and mindful self-focus in depressed patients. Behavior Research and Therapy, 47, 224–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, N. P., Papadakis, A. A., Hogan, C. M., & Strauman, T. J. (2009). Over and over again: Rumination, reflection, and promotion goal failure and their interactive effects on depressive symptoms. Behavior Research and Therapy, 47, 254–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joormann, J., Dkane, M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2006). Adaptive and maladaptive components of rumination? Diagnostic specificity and relation to depressive biases. Behavior Therapy, 37, 269–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1993). Lisrel 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
   Google Scholar
• Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2001). Lisrel 8: User's reference guide. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International.
   Google Scholar
• Klimstra, T. A.III, Hale, W. W., Raaijmakers, Q. A. W., Branje, S. T. J., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Maturation of personality in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 898–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuyken, W., Byford, S., Taylor, R. S., Watkins, E., Holden, E., White, K., et al., (2008). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy to prevent relapse in recurrent depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 966–978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, K. N., Clarkin, J. F., Yeomans, F. E., Scott, L. N., Wasserman, R. H., & Kernberg, O. F. (2006). The mechanisms of change in the treatment of borderline personality disorder with transference focused psychotherapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 481–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 663–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lischetzke, T., & Eid, M. (2003). Is attention to feelings beneficial or detrimental to affective well-being?Mood regulation as a moderator variable. Emotion, 3, 361–377.
   Google Scholar
• Luminet, O. (2004). Measurement of depressive rumination and associated constructs. In C.Papageorgiou & A.Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory, and treatment. Chichester: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Luyckx, K., Soenens, B., Berzonsky, M. D., Smits, L. G., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2007). Information-oriented identity processing, identity consolidation, and well-being: The moderating role of autonomy, self-reflection, and self-rumination. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1099–1111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyke, J. A. (2009). Insight, but not self-reflection, is related to subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 66–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, S. H., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: Replication and exploration of differential relaps prevention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 31–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyklicek, I., & Denollet, J. (2009). Development and evaluation of the Balanced Index of Psychological Mindedness (BIPN). Psychological Assessment, 21, 32–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotou, G., & Kokkinos, C. M. (2006). Self-consciousness and psychological distress: A study using the Greek SCS. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 83–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimes, K. A., & Watkins, E. (2005). The effects of self-focused rumination on global negative self-judgments in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1673–1681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Şahin, N. H., & Durak, A. (1994). Kisa semptom envanteri: Türk gençleri için uyarlanmasi (Brief Symptom Inventory: Adaptation for the Turkish youth). Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 9, 44–56.
   Google Scholar
• Shedler, J. (2010). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychoterapy. American Psychologist, 65, 98–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silvia, P. J., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2001). On introspection and self-perception: Does self-focused attention enable accurate self-knowledge?Review of General Psychology, 5, 241–269.
   Google Scholar
• Silvia, P. J., & Philips, A. G. (2011). Evaluating self-reflection and insight as self-conscious traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 234–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Şimşek, Ö. F. (2010). Language and the inner: Development of the beliefs about functions of language scale. European Psychologist, 15, 68–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, J. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2009). A roadmap to rumination: A review of the definition, assessment, and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 116–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stöber, J., Tepperwien, S., & Staak, M. (2000). Worrying leads to reduced concreteness of problem elaborations: Evidence for the avoidance theory of worry. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 13, 217–227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sümer, N., & Güngör, D. (1999). Psychometric evaluation of adult attachment measures on Turkish samples and a cross-cultural comparison. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 14, 71–106.
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. Behavior Research and Therapy, 47, 260–264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuğrul, C. (1994). Alkoliklerin çocuklarinin aile ortamindaki stres kaynaklari, etkileri ve stresle basa çikma yollari. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 9, 57–73.
   Google Scholar
• Ulusoy, M., Sahin, N. H., & Erkmen, H. (1998). Turkish version of the Beck Anxiety Inventory: Psychometric properties. Journal of Congnitive Psychotherapy, 12, 163–172.
   Google Scholar
• Vassilopoulos, S. P., & Watkins, E. R. (2009). Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus: A pilot extension study with individuals high and low in fear of negative evaluation. Behavior Therapy, 40, 181–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 163–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins, E., Baeyens, C. B., & Read, R. (2009). Concreteness training reduces dysphoria: Proof-of-principle for repeated cognitive bias modification in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 55–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar