Hormonal contraception and the development of autoimmunity: A review of the literature

References

• Adab, P., C. Q. Jiang, E. Rankin, Y. W. Tsang, T. H. Lam, J. Barlow, G. N. Thomas, et al. 2014. Breastfeeding practice, oral contraceptive use and risk of rheumatoid arthritis among Chinese women: The Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 53: 860–66. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ket456. Epub January 6, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Alcalde-Cabero, E., J. Almazán-Isla, A. García-Merino, J. de Sá, and J. de Pedro-Cuesta. 2013. Incidence of multiple sclerosis among European Economic Area populations, 1985–2009: The framework for monitoring. BMC Neurology 13: 58–80. doi: 10.1186/1471-2377-13-58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allison, J., L. J. Herrinton, L. Liu, J Yu, and J. Lowder. 2008. Natural history of severe ulcerative colitis in a community-based health plan. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 6: 999–1003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alonso, A., and M. A. Hernán. 2008. Temporal trends in the incidence of multiple sclerosis: A systematic review. Neurology 71: 129–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altman, Douglas, G. 1991. Practical statistics for medical research. London: Chapman and Hall.
   Google Scholar
• American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), Committee on Practice Bulletins-Gynecology. 2006. Use of hormonal contraception in women with coexisting medical conditions. ACOG practice bulletin. No. 73. Obstetrics and Gynecology 107: 1453–72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andersen, I. M., G. Tengesdal, B. A. Lie, K. M. Boberg, T. H. Karlsen, and J. R. Hov. 2014. Effects of coffee consumption, smoking, and hormones on risk for primary sclerosing cholangitis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 12: 1019–28. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2013.09.024. Epub 2013 Sep 25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• André, F., C. Veysseyre-Balter, H. Rousset, L. Descos, and C. André. 2003. Exogenous oestrogen as an alternative to food allergy in the aetiology of angioneurotic oedema. Toxicology 185: 155–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aoki Y., R. M. Belin, R. Clickner, R. Jeffries, L. Phillips, and K. R. Mahaffey. 2007. Serum TSH and total T4 in the United States population and their association with participant characteristics: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 1999–2002). Thyroid 17: 1211–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Athreya, B. H., P. Rettig, and W. V. Williams. 1998. Hypophyseal - pituitary - adrenal axis in autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Immunological Research 18: 93–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr Laboratories Inc. 2016. Apri (desogestrel and ethinyl estradiol) prescribing information. Drugs.com. http://www.drugs.com/pro/apri.html.
   Google Scholar
• Bartalena, L. 2013. Diagnosis and management of Graves disease: A global overview. Nature Reviews Endocrinology 9: 724–34. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2013.193. Epub 2013 Oct 15.
   Google Scholar
• Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc. 2012. YAZ (drospirenone/ethinyl estradiol) tablets Prescribing Information. http://labeling.bayerhealthcare.com/html/products/pi/fhc/YAZ_PI.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bayer New Zealand Limited. 2010. JADELLE Data Sheet, updated 30 August. http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/datasheet/j/Jadelleimplant.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Bernier, M. O., Y. Mikaeloff, M. Hudson, and S. Suissa. 2009. Combined oral contraceptive use and the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism 61: 476–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bewtra, M., L. M. Kaiser, T. TenHave, and J. D. Lewis. 2013. Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are associated with elevated standardized mortality ratios: A meta-analysis. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 19: 599–613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bijlsma, J. W., O. Huber-Bruning, and J. H. Thijssen. 1987. Effect of oestrogen treatment on clinical and laboratory manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 46: 777–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borchers, A. T., C. L. Keen, Y. Shoenfeld, and M. E. Gershwin. 2004. Surviving the butterfly and the wolf: Mortality trends in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmunity Reviews 3: 423–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bork, K., S. E. Barnstedt, P. Koch, and H. Traupe. 2000. Hereditary angioedema with normal C1-inhibitor activity in women. Lancet 356: 213–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bork, K., B. Fischer, and G. Dewald. 2003. Recurrent episodes of skin angioedema and severe attacks of abdominal pain induced by oral contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy. American Journal of Medicine 114: 294–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bork, K., K. Wulff, J. Hardt, G. Witzke, and P. Staubach. 2009. Hereditary angioedema caused by missense mutations in the factor XII gene: Clinical features, trigger factors, and therapy. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 124: 129–34. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.03.038. Epub 2009 May 27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bork, K., K. Wulff, G. Witzke, C. Stanger, P. Lohse, and J. Hardt. 2013. Antihistamine resistant angioedema in women with negative family history: Estrogens and F12 gene mutations. American Journal of Medicine 126: 1142.e9–14. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2013.05.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouillet, L., H. Longhurst, I. Boccon-Gibod, K. Bork, C. Bucher, A. Bygum, T. Caballero, et al. 2008. Disease expression in women with hereditary angioedema. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 199: 484.e1–4. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2008.04.034. Epub 2008 Jun 13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouillet, L., D. Ponard, C. Drouet, D. Jullien, and C. Massot. 2003. Angioedema and oral contraception. Dermatology 206: 106–09.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyko, E. J., M. K. Theis, T. L. Vaughan, and B. Nicol-Blades. 1994. Increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease associated with oral contraceptive use. American Journal of Epidemiology 140: 268–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caballero, T., H. Farkas, L. Bouillet, T. Bowen, A. Gompel, C. Fagerberg, J. Bjökander, et al. 2012. Prior. C-1-INH Deficiency Working Group. International consensus and practical guidelines on the gynecologic and obstetric management of female patients with hereditary angioedema caused by C1 inhibitor deficiency. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 129: 308–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.11.025. Epub 2011 Dec 24.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camacho, E. M., M. Lunt, T. M. Farragher, S. M. Verstappen, D. K. Bunn, and D. P. Symmons. 2011. The relationship between oral contraceptive use and functional outcome in women with recent-onset inflammatory polyarthritis: Results from the Norfolk Arthritis Register. Arthritis and Rheumatism 63: 2183–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canaris, G. J., N. R. Manowitz, G. Mayor, and E. C. Ridgway. 2000. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Archives of Internal Medicine 160: 526–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canavan, C., K. R. Abrams, and J. F. Mayberry. 2007. Meta-analysis: Mortality in Crohn’s disease. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 25: 861–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chruzander, C., S. Johansson, K. Gottberg, U. Einarsson, S. Fredrikson, L.W. Holmqvist, and C. Ytterberg. 2013. A 10-year follow-up of a population-based study of people with multiple sclerosis in Stockholm, Sweden: Changes in disability and the value of different factors in predicting disability and mortality. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 332: 121–27. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2013.07.003. Epub 2013 Jul 26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corpechot, C., Y. Chrétien, O. Chazouillères, and R. Poupon. 2010. Demographic, lifestyle, medical and familial factors associated with primary biliary cirrhosis. Journal of Hepatology 53: 162–69. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2010.02.019. Epub 2010 Mar 31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costenbader, K. H., D. Feskanich, M. J. Stampfer, and E. W. Karlson. 2007. Reproductive and menopausal factors and risk of systemic lupus erythematosus in women. Arthritis and Rheumatism 56: 1251–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cozier, Y. C., J. S. Berman, J. R. Palmer, D. A. Boggs, L. A. Wise, and L. Rosenberg. 2012. Reproductive and hormonal factors in relation to incidence of sarcoidosis in US Black women: The Black Women’s Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 176: 635-41. Epub 2012 Sep 11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cutolo, M., R. Brizzolara, F. Atzeni, S. Capellino, R. H. Straub, and P. C. Puttini. 2010. The immunomodulatory effects of estrogens: Clinical relevance in immune-mediated rheumatic diseases. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1193: 36–42. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05383.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deeks, J. J., and J. P. T. Higgins. 2010. Statistical algorithms in Review Manager 5. http://ims.cochrane.org/revman/documentation/Statistical-methods-in-RevMan-5.pdf
   Google Scholar
• de Mos, M., F. J. Huygen, B. H. Stricker, J. P. Dieleman, and M. C. Sturkenboom. 2009. Estrogens and the risk of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 18: 44–52. doi: 10.1002/pds.1683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donangelo, I., and G. D. Braunstein. 2011. Update on subclinical hyperthyroidism. American Family Physician 83: 933–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doran, M. F., C. S. Crowson, W. M. O’Fallon, and S. E. Gabriel. 2004. The effect of oral contraceptives and estrogen replacement therapy on the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: A population based study. Journal of Rheumatology 31: 207–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dreskin, S. C. 2012 Urticaria and angioedema. In: Goldman, L., and A.I. Schafer, eds. Goldman’s Cecil Medicine 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; chap 260.
   Google Scholar
• Ebers, G. C. 2008. Environmental factors and multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurology 7: 268–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Khoudary, S. R., E. O. Talbott, J. T. Bromberger, C. C. Chang, T. J. Songer, and E. L. Davis. 2009. Severity of interstitial cystitis symptoms and quality of life in female patients. Journal of Womens Health (Larchmont) 18: 1361–68. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2008.1270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erhardt, C. C., P. A. Mumford, P. J. Venables, and R. N. Maini. 1989. Factors predicting a poor life prognosis in rheumatoid arthritis: An eight year prospective study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 48: 7–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feld, J. J., and E. J. Heathcote. 2003. Epidemiology of autoimmune liver disease. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 18: 1118–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes, N. C., J. Maceira, and M. Muniz. 1994. Erythema nodosum: Prospective study of 32 cases. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 36: 507–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fournier, J. B. 2015. Resolution of autoimmune progesterone dermatitis after treatment with oral contraceptives. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology Case Reports. 1:319–20.
   Google Scholar
• Gao, J., L. Qiao, and B. Wang. 2015. Primary biliary cirrhosis is a generalized autoimmune epithelitis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 16: 6432–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardella, B., D. Porru, R. E. Nappi, M. D. Daccò, A. Chiesa, and A. Spinillo. 2011. Interstitial cystitis is associated with vulvodynia and sexual dysfunction–a case-control study. The Journal of Sexual Medicine 8: 1726–34. doi: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02251.x. Epub 2011 Apr 7.
   Google Scholar
• George, R., and S. Z. Badawy. 2012. Case Report. Autoimmune progesterone dermatitis: a case report. Case Reports in Obstetrics and Gynecology 2012:757854 (2 pages). doi: 10.1155/2012/757854. Epub 2012 Aug 9.
   Google Scholar
• Godet, P. G., G. R. May, and L. R. Sutherland. 1995. Meta-analysis of the role of oral contraceptive agents in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 37: 668–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodin, D. S. 2014. The epidemiology of multiple sclerosis: Insights to disease pathogenesis. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 122: 231–66.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gunson, M. J., G. W. Arnett, B. Formby, C. Falzone, R. Mathur, and C. Alexander. 2009. Oral contraceptive pill use and abnormal menstrual cycles in women with severe condylar resorption: A case for low serum 17beta-estradiol as a major factor in progressive condylar resorption. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics 136: 772–79. doi: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2009.07.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Günthert, A. R., M. Faber, G. Knappe, S. Hellriegel, and G. Emons. 2008. Early onset vulvar Lichen Sclerosus in premenopausal women and oral contraceptives. European Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 137: 56–60. Epub 2007 Dec 4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hannuksela, M. 1973. Erythema nodosum migrans. Acta Dermato-Venereologica 53: 313–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, R. 1977. Autoimmune progesterone dermatitis. Archives of Dermatology 113: 426–30.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hazes, J. M., B. A. Dijkmans, J. P. Vandenbroucke, R. R. De Vries, and A. Cats. 1989. Oral contraceptives and rheumatoid arthritis; further evidence for a protective effect independent of duration of pill use. British Journal of Rheumatology 28 Suppl 1: 34; discussion 42–45.
   Google Scholar
• Hellwig, K., L. H. Chen, F. Z. Stancyzk, and A. M. Langer-Gould. 2016. Oral contraceptives and multiple sclerosis/clinically isolated syndrome susceptibility. PLoS One. 11:e0149094. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149094.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmick, C. G., D. T. Felson, R. C. Lawrence, S. Gabriel, R. Hirsch, C. K. Kwoh, M. H. Liang,; J. H. Stone for the National Arthritis Data Workgroup. 2008. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part I. Arthritis and Rheumatism 58: 15–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernán, M. A., M. J. Olek, and A. Ascherio. 1999. Geographic variation of MS incidence in two prospective studies of US women. Neurology 53: 1711–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höie, O., F. Wolters, L. Riis, G. Aamodt, C. Solberg, T. Bernklev, S. Odes, et al.; European Collaborative Study Group of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (EC-IBD). 2007. Ulcerative colitis: Patient characteristics may predict 10-yr disease recurrence in a European-wide population-based cohort. American Journal of Gastroenterology 102: 1692–701. Epub 2007 Jun 6.
   Google Scholar
• Hollowell, J. G., N. W. Staehling, W. D. Flanders, W. H. Hannon, E. W. Gunter, C. A. Spencer, and L. E. Braverman. 2002. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 87: 489–99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holm, I. A., J. E. Manson, K. B. Michels, E. K. Alexander, W. C. Willett, and R. D. Utiger. 2005. Smoking and other lifestyle factors and the risk of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Archives of Internal Medicine 165: 1606–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hutfless, S. M., X. Weng, L. Liu, J. Allison, and L. J. Herrinton. 2007. Mortality by medication use among patients with inflammatory bowel disease, 1996–2003. Gastroenterology 133: 1779–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Collaborative Post-Marketing Surveillance of Norplant. Corresponding authors: Farley, T.M.M. and I. Sivin. 2001. Post-marketing surveillance of Norplant contraceptive implants: II. non-reproductive health. Contraception 63: 187–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issaragrisil, S., D. W. Kaufman, T. Anderson, K. Chansung, T. Thamprasit, J. Sirijirachai, A. Piankijagum, et al. 1997. Low drug attributability of aplastic anemia in Thailand. The Aplastic Anemia Study Group. Blood 89: 4034–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jess, T., M. Frisch, and J. Simonsen. 2013. Trends in overall and cause-specific mortality among patients with inflammatory bowel disease from 1982 to 2010. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 11: 43–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jess, T., M. Gamborg, P. Munkholm, and T. I. Sørensen. 2007. Overall and cause-specific mortality in ulcerative colitis: Meta-analysis of population-based inception cohort studies. American Journal of Gastroenterology 102: 609–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jess, T., K. V. Winther, P. Munkholm, E. Langholz, and V. Binder. 2002 Mortality and causes of death in Crohn’s disease: Follow-up of a population-based cohort in Copenhagen County, Denmark. Gastroenterology 122: 1808–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Julkunen, H. A. 1991. Oral contraceptives in systemic lupus erythematosus: Side-effects and influence on the activity of SLE. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 20: 427–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Julkunen, H. A., R. Kaaja, and C. Friman. 1993. Contraceptive practice in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. British Journal of Rheumatology 32: 227–30.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jungers, P., M. Dougados, C. Pélissier, F. Kuttenn, F. Tron, P. Lesavre, and J. F. Bach. 1982. Influence of oral contraceptive therapy on the activity of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism 25: 618–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappelman, M. D., S. L. Rifas-Shiman, K. Kleinman, D. Ollendorf, A. Bousvaros, R. J. Grand, and J. A. Finkelstein. 2007. The prevalence and geographic distribution of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis in the United States. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 5: 1424–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasitanon, N., L. S. Magder, and M. Petri. 2006. Predictors of survival in systemic lupus erythematosus. Medicine (Baltimore) 85: 147–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katschinski, B. 1993. [Smoking and ovulation inhibitor in inflammatory bowel diseases]. Medizinische Klinik (Munich, Germany) 88 Suppl 1: 5–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Katz Sand, I. B., and F. D. Lublin. 2013. Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Continuum (Minneapolis, Minn.) 19: 922–43.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kazis, L. E., J. J. Anderson, and R. F. Meenan. 1990. Health status as a predictor of mortality in rheumatoid arthritis: A five-year study. Journal of Rheumatology 17: 609–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalili, H., F. Granath, K. E. Smedby, A. Ekbom, M. Neovius, A. T. Chan, and O. Olen. 2016. Association between long-term oral contraceptive use and risk of Crohn’s Disease complications in a nationwide study. Gastroenterology. pii: S0016-5085(16)00232–8. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2016.02.041. [Epub ahead of print]. http://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(16)00232-8/abstract?referrer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F26919969
   Google Scholar
• Khalili, H., L. M. Higuchi, A. N. Ananthakrishnan, J. M. Richter, D. Feskanich, C. S. Fuchs, and A. T. Chan. 2013. Oral contraceptives, reproductive factors and risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 62: 1153–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khosravi Khorashad, A., M. Khajedaluee, E. Mokhtari Amirmajdi, A. Bahari, M. R. Farzanehfar, M. Ahadi, S. Abedini, et al. 2015. Frequency and risk factors of primary sclerosing cholangitis among patients with inflammatory bowel disease in North-East of Iran. Gastroenterology and Hepatology From Bed to Bench. 8: 200–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kingwell, E., M. van der Kop, Y. Zhao, A. Shirani, F. Zhu, J. Oger, and H. Tremlett. 2012. Relative mortality and survival in multiple sclerosis: Findings from British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 83: 61–66. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2011-300616. Epub 2011 Aug 23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch-Henriksen, N., and P. S. Sørensen. 2010. The changing demographic pattern of multiple sclerosis epidemiology. Lancet Neurology 9: 520–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konkle, K. S., S. H. Berry, M. N. Elliott, L. Hilton, M. J. Suttorp, D. J. Clauw, and J. Q. Clemens. 2012. Comparison of an interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome clinical cohort with symptomatic community women from the RAND Interstitial Cystitis Epidemiology study. Journal of Urology 187: 508–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotzamani, D., T. Panou, V. Mastorodemos, M. Tzagournissakis, H. Nikolakaki, C. Spanaki, and A. Plaitakis. 2012. Rising incidence of multiple sclerosis in females associated with urbanization. Neurology 78: 1728–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lackner, K. J., and N. Müller-Calleja. 2016. Pathogenesis of the Antiphospholipid Syndrome Revisited - Time to Challenge the Dogma. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 2016 doi: 10.1111/jth.13320. [Epub ahead of print]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langholz, E., P. Munkholm, M. Davidsen, and V. Binder. 1992. Colorectal cancer risk and mortality in patients with ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 103: 1444–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, R. C., D. T. Felson, C. G. Helmick, L. M. Arnold, H. Choi, R. A. Deyo, S. Gabriel, et al.; and F. Wolfe for the National Arthritis Data Workgroup. 2008. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part II. Arthritis and Rheumatism 58: 26–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockshin, M. D. 1989. Pregnancy does not cause systemic lupus erythematosus to worsen. Arthritis and Rheumatism 326: 665–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockshin, M. D., E. Reinitz, M. L. Druzin, M. Murrman, and D. Estes. 1984. Lupus pregnancy. Case-control prospective study demonstrating absence of lupus exacerbation during or after pregnancy. American Journal of Medicine 77: 893–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. V. Jr. 2004. Clinical epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: Incidence, prevalence, and environmental influences. Gastroenterology 126: 1504–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackenzie, I. S., S. V. Morant, G. A. Bloomfield, T. M. MacDonald, and J. O’Riordan. 2014. Incidence and prevalence of multiple sclerosis in the UK 1990–2010: A descriptive study in the General Practice Research Database. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 85: 76–84. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2013-305450. Epub 2013 Sep 19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maguire, T. 2009. Autoimmune progesterone dermatitis. Dermatology Nursing 21: 190–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Malaviya, A.N., I. M. Francis, P. Kaushik, and E. H. Ayyash. 1999. Musculoskeletal manifestations with panniculitis–a hospital based study on 62 patients in Kuwait. Rheumatology International 19: 51–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann, D., A. A. Ansari, M. A. Akinbami, K. Wallen, K. G. Gould, and H. M. McClure. 1994. Neonatal treatment with lutenizing hormone-releasing hormone analogs alters peripheral lymphocyte subsets and cellular and humorally mediated immune responses in juvenile and adult male monkeys. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 78: 292–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manouchehrinia, A., M. Weston, C. R. Tench, J. Britton, and C. S. Constantinescu. 2014. Tobacco smoking and excess mortality in multiple sclerosis: A cohort study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 85: 1091–95. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2013-307187. Epub 2014 Feb 25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meehan, R. T., and J. K. Dorsey. 1987. Pregnancy among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Journal of Rheumatology 14: 252–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mekhjian, H. S., D. M. Switz, C. S. Melnyk, G. B. Rankin, and R. K. Brooks. 1979. Clinical features and natural history of Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 77: 898–906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miranda, A. R., A. P. Ue, D. V. Sabbag, J. Furlani Wde, P. K. Souza, and O. Rotta. 2013. Hereditary angioedema type III (estrogen-dependent) report of three cases and literature review. Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia 88: 578–84. doi: 10.1590/abd1806-4841.20131818.
   Google Scholar
• Molodecky, N. A., I. S. Soon, D. M. Rabi, W. A. Ghali, M. Ferris, G. Chernoff, E. I. Benchimol, et al. 2012. Increasing incidence and prevalence of the inflammatory bowel diseases with time, based on systematic review. Gastroenterology 142: 46–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosher, W. D., and J. Jones. 2010. Use of contraception in the United States: 1982–2008. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Vital and Health Statistics, Series 23, Number 29. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_029.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Munkholm, P., E. Langholz, O. H. Nielsen, S. Kreiner, and V. Binder. 1992. Incidence and prevalence of Crohn’s disease in the county of Copenhagen, 1962–87: A sixfold increase in incidence. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 27: 609–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murali, R., L. Jeyaseelan, S. Rajaratnam, L. John, and A. Ganesh. 1997. Systemic lupus erythematosus in Indian patients: Prognosis, survival and life expectancy. National Medical Journal of India 10: 159–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myasoedova, E., C. S. Crowson, H. M. Kremers, T. M. Therneau, and S. E. Gabriel. 2010. Is the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis rising?: Results from Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1955–2007. Arthritis and Rheumatism 62: 1576–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng, S. C., S. Woodrow, N. Patel, J. Subhani, and M. Harbord. 2012. Role of genetic and environmental factors in British twins with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammatory Bowel Disease 18: 725–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedziela, N., M. Adamczyk-Sowa, and K. Pierzchała. 2014. Epidemiology and clinical record of multiple sclerosis in selected countries: A systematic review. International Journal of Neuroscience 124: 322–30. doi: 10.3109/00207454.2013.840618. Epub 2013 Oct 4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pagano, M., and K. Gauvreau. 2000. Principles of biostatistics. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Parrello, T., M. Pavia, I. F. Angelillo, G. Monteleone, G. Riegler, G. Papi, R. D’Incà, V. Annese, F. Tonelli, R. Caprilli, and F. Pallone. 1997. Appendectomy is an independent protective factor for ulcerative colitis: Results of a multicentre case control study. The Italian Group for the Study of the Colon and Rectum (GISC). Italian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 29: 208–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parshall, M. B. 2013. Unpacking the 2 x 2 table. Heart & Lung 42: 221–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen, M., S. Jacobsen, M. Klarlund, B. V. Pedersen, A. Wiik, J. Wohlfahrt, and M. Frisch. 2006. Environmental risk factors differ between rheumatoid arthritis with and without auto-antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptides. Arthritis Research and Therapy 8: R133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petri, M., D. Howard, and J. Repke. 1991. Frequency of lupus flare in pregnancy. The Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Center experience. Arthritis and Rheumatism 34: 1538–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petri, M., M. Y. Kim, K. C. Kalunian, J. Grossman, B. H. Hahn, L. R. Sammaritano, M. Lockshin, et al.; and the OC-SELENA Trial. 2005. Combined oral contraceptives in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. New England Journal of Medicine 353: 2550–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petri, M., and C. Robinson. 1997. Oral contraceptives and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism 40: 797–803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pincus, T., and L. F. Callahan. 1986. Taking mortality in rheumatoid arthritis seriously–predictive markers, socioeconomic status and comorbidity. Journal of Rheumatology 13: 841–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polman, C. H., S. C. Reingold, B. Banwell, M. Clanet, J. A. Cohen, M. Filippi, K. Fujihara, et al. 2011. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2010 revisions to the McDonald criteria. Annals of Neurology 69: 292–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Population Council. n.d. “Norplant® II” Levonorgestrel Implants (Jadelle®) Prescribing Information. http://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/licensing/20544se2-003_jadelle_lbl.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Psychos, D. N., P. V. Voulgari, F. N. Skopouli, A. A. Drosos, and H. M. 2000. Moutsopoulos. Erythema nodosum: The underlying conditions. Clinical Rheumatology 19: 212–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romieu, I., M. Hernandez-Avila, and M. H. Liang. 1989. Oral contraceptives and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: A meta-analysis of a conflicting literature. British Journal of Rheumatology 28 Suppl 1: 13–17; discussion 18–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G., F. Lima, J. Alves, M. A. Khamashta, J. Simpson, G. R. Hughes, and N. M. Buchanan. 1996. Increased rate of lupus flare during pregnancy and the puerperium: A prospective study of 78 pregnancies. British Journal of Rheumatology 35: 133–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rus, V., A. Hajeer, and M. C. Hochberg. 2001. Chapter 7. Systemic lupus erythematosus. In Epidemiology of the rheumatic disease, 2nd ed., eds. A. J. Silman and M. C. Hochberg. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sacks, J. J., C. G. Helmick, G. Langmaid, and J. E. Sniezek. 2002. Trends in deaths from systemic lupus erythematosus—United States, 1979–1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51: 371–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sanchez-Guerrero, J., E. W. Karlson, M. H. Liang, D. J. Hunter, F. E. Speizer, and G. A. Colditz. 1997. Past use of oral contraceptives and the risk of developing systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism 40: 804–08.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sánchez-Guerrero, J., A. G. Uribe, L. Jiménez-Santana, M. Mestanza-Peralta, P. Lara-Reyes, A. H. Seuc, and M. D. Cravioto. 2005. A trial of contraceptive methods in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. New England Journal of Medicine 353: 2539–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saule, C., I. Boccon-Gibod, O. Fain, G. Kanny, G. Plu-Bureau, L. Martin, D. Launay, L. Bouillet, and A. Gompel. 2013. Benefits of progestin contraception in non-allergic angioedema. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 43: 475–82. doi: 10.1111/cea.12055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuurs, A. H., and H. A. Verheul. 1990. Effects of gender and sex steroids on immune response. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 35: 157–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sicilia, B., C. López Miguel, F. Arribas, J. López Zaborras, E. Sierra, and F. Gomollón. 2001. Environmental risk factors and Crohn’s disease: A population-based, case-control study in Spain. Digestive and Liver Disease 33: 762–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silman, A. J., and M. C. Hochberg. 2001 Epidemiology of the rheumatic diseases. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Simpson, S. Jr, L. Blizzard, P. Otahal, I. Van der Mei, and B. Taylor. 2011. Latitude is significantly associated with the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: A meta-analysis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 82: 1132–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solberg, I. C., I. Lygren, J. Jahnsen, E. Aadland, O. Høie, M. Cvancarova, T. Bernklev, M. Henriksen, J. Sauar, M. H. Vatn, and B. Moum, IBSEN Study Group. 2009. Clinical course during the first 10 years of ulcerative colitis: Results from a population-based inception cohort (IBSEN Study). Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 44: 431–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solberg, I. C., M. H. Vatn, O. Høie, N. Stray, J. Sauar, J. Jahnsen, B. Moum, and I. Lygren, IBSEN Study Group. 2007. Clinical course in Crohn’s disease: Results of a Norwegian population-based ten-year follow-up study. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatolology 5: 1430–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spector, T. D., and M. C. Hochberg. 1990. The protective effect of the oral contraceptive pill on rheumatoid arthritis: An overview of the analytic epidemiological studies using meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 43: 1221–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stellon, A. J., and M. Wakeling. 1989. Hidradenitis suppurativa associated with use of oral contraceptives. British Medical Journal 298: 28–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Symmons, D. P., and S. E. Gabriel. 2011. Epidemiology of CVD in rheumatic disease, with a focus on RA and SLE. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 7: 399–408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan, I. J., E. Peeva, and G. Zandman-Goddard. 2015. Hormonal modulation of the immune system – A spotlight on the role of progestogens. Autoimmunity Reviews pii: S1568–9972 (15)00048-8. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2015.02.004. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanriverdi, F., L. F. Silveira, G. S. MacColl, and P. M. Bouloux. 2003. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis: immune function and autoimmunity. Journal of Endocrinology 176: 293–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thia, K. T., W. J. Sandborn, W. S. Harmsen, A. R. Zinsmeister, and E. V. Loftus Jr. 2010. Risk factors associated with progression to intestinal complications of Crohn’s disease in a population-based cohort. Gastroenterology 139: 1147–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thvilum, M., F. Brandt, D. Almind, K. Christensen, L. Hegedüs, and T. H. Brix. 2013. Excess mortality in patients diagnosed with hypothyroidism: A nationwide cohort study of singletons and twins. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 98: 1069–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thvilum, M., F. Brandt, T. Brix H., and L. Hegedüs. 2012. A review of the evidence for and against increased mortality in hypothyroidism. Nature Reviews Endocrinology 8: 417–24. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2012.29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trager, J., and M. M. Ward. 2001. Mortality and causes of death in systemic lupus erythematosus. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 13:345–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulcova-Gallova, Z., K. Bibkova, Z. Micanova, P. Losan, and K. Babcova. 2015. Possible Effect of Extended Use of Hormonal Contraception on Increased Levels of Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Infertile Women. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkinde. 75:251–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uramoto, K. M., C. J. Michet Jr., J. Thumboo, J. Sunku, W. M. O’Fallon, and S. E. Gabriel. 1999. Trends in the incidence and mortality of systemic lupus erythematosus, 1950–1992. Arthritis and Rheumatism 42: 46–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urbanus, R. T., B. Siegerink, M. Roest, F. R. Rosendaal, P. G. de Groot, and A. Algra. 2009. Antiphospholipid antibodies and risk of myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke in young women in the RATIO study: A case-control study. Lancet Neurology 8: 998–1005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urowitz, M. B., D. D. Gladman, V. T. Farewell, J. Stewart, and J. McDonald. 1993. Lupus and pregnancy studies. Arthritis and Rheumatism 36: 1392–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandenbroucke, J. P., H. A. Valkenburg, J. W. Boersma, A. Cats, J. J. Festen, O. Huber-Bruning, and J. J. Rasker. 1982. Oral contraceptives and rheumatoid arthritis: Further evidence for a preventive effect. Lancet 2: 839–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanderpump, M. P., and W. M. Tunbridge. 2000. The epidemiology of thyroid diseases. In: The thyroid: A fundamental and clinical text, 8th, Braverman LE, Utiger RD (Eds), 467–473. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
   Google Scholar
• Vanderpump, M. P., W. M. Tunbridge, J. M. French, D. Appleton, D. Bates, F. Clark, J. Grimley Evans, D. M. Hasan, H. Rodgers, and F. Tunbridge. 1995. The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: A twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham Survey. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) 43: 55–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visy, B., G. Fust, L. Varga, G. Szendei, E. Takacs, I. Karadi, B. Fekete, G. Harmat, and H. Farkas.2004. Sex hormones in hereditary angioneurotic oedema. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) 60: 508–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Elm, E., D. G. Altman, M. Egger, S. J. Pocock, P. C. Gøtzsche, and J. P. Vandenbroucke; STROBE Initiative. 2007. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. PLoS Medicine 4: 1623–27 (e296). doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed. 0040296
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, F., C. L. Wang, C. T. Tan, and M. Manivasagar. 1997. Systemic lupus erythematosus in Malaysia: A study of 539 patients and comparison of prevalence and disease expression in different racial and gender groups. Lupus 6: 248–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren, J. W., D. J. Clauw, U. Wesselmann, P. W. Langenberg, F. M. Howard, and V. Morozov. 2011. Sexuality and reproductive risk factors for interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome in women. Urology 77: 570–75. doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2010.10.018. Epub 2011 Jan 7.
   Google Scholar
• Weetman, A. P., and A. M. McGregor. 1994. Autoimmune thyroid disease: further developments in our understanding. Endocrinology Reviews 15: 788–830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingrave, S. J., and C. R. Kay. 1978. Reduction in incidence of rheumatoid arthritis associated with oral contraceptives. Lancet 1: 569–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, F., D. M. Mitchell, J. T. Sibley, J. F. Fries, D. A. Bloch, C. A. Williams, P. W, Spitz, M. Haga, S. M. Kleinheksel, and M. A. Cathey. 1994. The mortality of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 37: 481–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yurkovich, M., K. Vostretsova, W. Chen, and J. A. Aviña-Zubieta. 2014. Overall and cause-specific mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Arthritis Care and Research 66: 608–16. doi: 10.1002/acr.22173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar