1,140
Views
25
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Strengths and limitations of two cannabis-impaired driving detection methods: a review of the literature

Pages 610-622 | Received 18 Dec 2018, Accepted 09 Aug 2019, Published online: 09 Sep 2019

References

  • Lucas P, Walsh Z. Medical cannabis access, use, and substitution for prescription opioids and other substances: A survey of authorized medical cannabis patients. Int J Drug Policy. 2017 Apr 1;42:30–35. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.01.011.
  • Corroon JMJ, Mischley LK, Sexton M. Cannabis as a substitute for prescription drugs – a cross-sectional study [Internet]. J Pain Res. 2017 [cited 2019 Jul 22]. Available from https://www-dovepress-com.libproxy.uthscsa.edu/cannabis-as-a-substitute-for-prescription-drugs-ndash-a-cross-sectiona-peer-reviewed-article-JPR.
  • Bradford AC, Bradford WD, Abraham A, Adams GB. Association between US State medical cannabis laws and opioid prescribing in the medicare part D population. JAMA Intern Med. 2018 May 1;178:667–72. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.0266.
  • Elvik R. Risk of road accident associated with the use of drugs: A systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence from epidemiological studies. Accid Anal Prev. 2013Nov;60:254–67. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2012.06.017.
  • Aydelotte JD, Brown LH, Luftman KM, Mardock AL, Teixeira PGR, Coopwood B, Brown CV. Crash fatality rates after recreational marijuana legalization in Washington and Colorado. Am J Public Health. 2017 Jun 22;107:1329–31. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303848.
  • Bogstrand ST, Gjerde H. Which drugs are associated with highest risk for being arrested for driving under the influence? A case–control study. Forensic Sci Int. 2014Jul;240:21–28. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.03.027.
  • National Academies of Sciences E. The health effects of cannabis and cannabinoids: The current state of evidence and recommendations for research [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jul 22]. Available from: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/24625/the-health-effects-of-cannabis-and-cannabinoids-the-current-state
  • Nilsen HK, Landrø NI, Kaasa S, Jenssen GD, Fayers P, Borchgrevink PC. Driving functions in a video simulator in chronic non-malignant pain patients using and not using codeine. Eur J Pain. 2011Apr;15:409–15. doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2010.09.008.
  • Schumacher MB, Jongen S, Knoche A, Petzke F, Vuurman EF, Vollrath M, Ramaekers JG. Effect of chronic opioid therapy on actual driving performance in non-cancer pain patients. Psychopharmacology. 2017 Mar;234:989–99. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4536-6.
  • Couper FJ, Peterson BL. The prevalence of marijuana in suspected impaired driving cases in Washington State†. J Analyt Toxicol. 2014Oct;38:569–74. doi:10.1093/jat/bku090.
  • Terry P, Wright KA. Self-reported driving behaviour and attitudes towards driving under the influence of cannabis among three different user groups in England. Addict Behav. 2005Mar;30:619–26. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.08.007.
  • Eichelberger AH. Marijuana use and driving in Washington State: Risk perceptions and behaviors before and after implementation of retail sales. Traffic Inju Prev. 2019 Jan 2;20:23–29. doi:10.1080/15389588.2018.1530769.
  • Rogeberg O, Elvik R. The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised. Addiction. 2016Aug;111:1348–59. doi:10.1111/add.13347.
  • Bondallaz P, Favrat B, Chtioui H, Fornari E, Maeder P, Giroud C. Cannabis and its effects on driving skills. Forensic Sci Int. 2016Nov;268:92–102. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.09.007.
  • Busardò FP, Pellegrini M, Klein J, Di Luca NM. Neurocognitive correlates in driving under the influence of cannabis. CNS Neurol Disord - Drug Targets [Internet]. 2017 Aug 9 [cited 2019 Feb 7];16. Available from: http://www.eurekaselect.com/151827/article.
  • Ronen A, Gershon P, Drobiner H, Rabinovich A, Bar-Hamburger R, Mechoulam R, Cassuto Y, Shinar D. Effects of THC on driving performance, physiological state and subjective feelings relative to alcohol. Accid Anal Prev. 2008May;40:926–34. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2007.10.011.
  • Ronen A, Chassidim HS, Gershon P, Parmet Y, Rabinovich A, Bar-Hamburger R, Cassuto Y, Shinar D. The effect of alcohol, THC and their combination on perceived effects, willingness to drive and performance of driving and non-driving tasks. Accid Anal Prev. 2010Nov;42:1855–65. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2010.05.006.
  • Lenné MG, Dietze PM, Triggs TJ, Walmsley S, Murphy B, Redman JR. The effects of cannabis and alcohol on simulated arterial driving: Influences of driving experience and task demand. Accid Anal Prev. 2010May;42:859–66. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2009.04.021.
  • Heishman SJ, Stitzer ML, Yingling JE. Effects of tetrahydrocannabinol content on marijuana smoking behavior, subjective reports, and performance. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1989Sep;34:173–79. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(89)90369-9.
  • Bosker WM, Kuypers KPC, Theunissen EL, Surinx A, Blankespoor RJ, Skopp G, Jeffery WK, et al. Medicinal Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol) impairs on-the-road driving performance of occasional and heavy cannabis users but is not detected in Standard Field Sobriety Tests: Medicinal THC and driving performance. Addiction. 2012;107:1837–44. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03928.x.
  • Robbe H. Marijuana’s impairing effects on driving are moderate when taken alone but severe when combined with alcohol. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp. 1998 Nov 1;13:S70–8.
  • Sexton BF, Tunbridge RJ, Brook-Carter N, Jackson PG, Wright K, Stark MM, Englehart K. The influence of cannabis on driving (No. TRL Report 477). London, UK: Prepared for Road Safety Division, Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions.; 2000
  • AASHTO A. Policy on geometric design of highways and streets. 7th ed. Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials; 2018.
  • Strand MC, Gjerde H, Mørland J. Driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs — An update. Part II: Exp Stud; Forensic Sci Rev. 2016;28:79.
  • Stapleton JM, Guthrie S, Linnoila M. Effects of alcohol and other psychotropic drugs on eye movements: Relevance to traffic safety. J Stud Alcohol. 1986Sep;47:426–32. doi:10.15288/jsa.1986.47.426.
  • Roser P, Gallinat J, Weinberg G, Juckel G, Gorynia I, Stadelmann AM. Psychomotor performance in relation to acute oral administration of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and standardized cannabis extract in healthy human subjects. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009Aug;259:284–92. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0868-5.
  • Chu M, Gerostamoulos D, Beyer J, Rodda L, Boorman M, Drummer OH. The incidence of drugs of impairment in oral fluid from random roadside testing. Forensic Sci Int. 2012 Feb 10;215:28–31. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.05.012.
  • Favretto D, Visentin S, Stocchero G, Vogliardi S, Snenghi R, Montisci M. Driving under the influence of drugs: Prevalence in road traffic accidents in Italy and considerations on per se limits legislation. Traffic Inju Prev. 2018 Nov 17;19:786–93. doi:10.1080/15389588.2018.1500018.
  • Watson TM, Mann RE. International approaches to driving under the influence of cannabis: A review of evidence on impact. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016 Dec 1;169:148–55. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.024.
  • Steentoft A, Simonsen KW, Linnet K. The frequency of drugs among danish drivers before and after the introduction of fixed concentration limits. Traffic Inj Prev. 2010 Aug 26;11:329–33. doi:10.1080/15389581003792783.
  • Sewell RA, Poling J, Sofuoglu M. The effect of cannabis compared with alcohol on driving. Am J Addict. 2009Jan;18:185–93. doi:10.1080/10550490902786934.
  • Asbridge M, Hayden JA, Cartwright JL. Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: Systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2012 Feb 9;344:e536–e536. doi:10.1136/bmj.e536.
  • Dingus TA. Estimates of prevalence and risk associated with inattention and distraction based upon in situ naturalistic data. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2014;58:60–68.
  • Rogeberg O, Elvik R, White M. Correction to: ‘The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised’ (2016). Addiction. 2018;113:967–69. doi:10.1111/add.14178.
  • Li M-C, Brady JE, DiMaggio CJ, Lusardi AR, Tzong KY, Li G. Marijuana use and motor vehicle crashes. Epidemiol Rev. 2012 Jan 1;34:65–72. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxr017.
  • Colorado Department of Public Safety. Impacts of Marijuana Legalization in Colorado. A report pursuant to senate bill 13-283 [Internet]. Denver: Colorado Department of Public Safety; 2018 Oct. Report No.: 2018-SB-13–283. Available from: http://cdpsdocs.state.co.us/ors/docs/reports/2018-SB13-283_Rpt.pdf
  • Karush S. Legal Pot. Status Report. 2018 Oct 18;53:1–8.
  • Wood E, Salomonsen-Sautel S. DUID prevalence in Colorado’s DUI citations. Journal of Safety Research. 2016Jun;57:33–38. doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2016.03.005.
  • Ramaekers G, Lamers J, Verhey F, Muntjewerff D, Mobbs E, Sanders N, Lewis J, Lockton J. A comparative study of the effects of carbamazepine and the NMDA receptor antagonist remacemide on road tracking and car-following performance in actual traffic. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002Jan;159:203–10. doi:10.1007/s002130100898.
  • Mets MAJ, Kuipers E, de Senerpont Domis LM, Leenders M, Olivier B, Verster JC. Effects of alcohol on highway driving in the STISIM driving simulator. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2011 Aug;26:434–39.
  • Irwin C, Monement S, Desbrow B. The influence of drinking, texting and eating on simulated driving performance. Traffic Inj Prev. 2014 May;14.
  • Hunter CE, Lokan RJ, Longo MC, White JM, White MA The prevalence and role of alcohol, cannabinoids, benzodiazepines and stimulants in non-fatal crashes [Internet]. 1998 [cited 2014 Aug 18]. Available from: https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=538679
  • Mura P, Kintz P, Dumestre V, Raul S, Hauet T. THC can be detected in brain while absent in blood. J Anal Toxicol. 2005 Nov 1;29:842–43. doi:10.1093/jat/29.8.842.
  • Ramaekers JG, Berghaus G, van Laar M, Drummer OH. Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Feb 7;73:109–19. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.10.008.
  • Desrosiers NA, Himes SK, Scheidweiler KB, Concheiro-Guisan M, Gorelick DA, Huestis MA. Phase I and II cannabinoid disposition in blood and plasma of occasional and frequent smokers following controlled smoked cannabis. Clinical Chemistry. 2014 Apr 1;60:631–43. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2013.216507.
  • Leuschner JT, Harvey DJ, Bullingham RE, Paton WD. Pharmacokinetics of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rabbits following single or multiple intravenous doses. Drug Metab Dispos. 1986 Apr;14:230–38.
  • Karschner EL, Schwilke EW, Lowe RH, Darwin WD, Pope HG, Herning R, Cadet JL, Huestis MA. Do Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations indicate recent use in chronic cannabis users? Addiction. 2009Dec;104:2041–48. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02705.x.
  • Bergamaschi MM, Karschner EL, Goodwin RS, Scheidweiler KB, Hirvonen J, Queiroz RHC, Huestis MA. Impact of prolonged cannabinoid excretion in chronic daily cannabis smokers’ blood on per se drugged driving laws. Clin Chem. 2013 Mar;59:519–26. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2012.195503.
  • der Linden TV, Silverans P, Verstraete AG. Comparison between self-report of cannabis use and toxicological detection of THC/THCCOOH in blood and THC in oral fluid in drivers in a roadside survey. Drug Test Analysis. 2014 Jan 1;6:137–42. doi:10.1002/dta.1517.
  • Robbe HWJ, O’Hanlon JF Marijuana and actual driving performance. U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Springfield, Virginia: National Technical Information Service; 1993. Report No.: DOT HS 808 078.
  • Musshoff F, Madea B. Review of biologic matrices (urine, blood, hair) as indicators of recent or ongoing cannabis use. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 2006;28:155–63. doi:10.1097/01.ftd.0000197091.07807.22.
  • Kauert GF, Ramaekers JG, Schneider E, Moeller MR, Toennes SW. Pharmacokinetic properties of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in serum and oral fluid. J Anal Toxicol. 2007 Jun 1;31:288–93. doi:10.1093/jat/31.5.288.
  • Gunasekaran N, Long LE, Dawson BL, Hansen GH, Richardson DP, Li KM, Arnold JC, McGregor IS. Reintoxication: The release of fat-stored delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) into blood is enhanced by food deprivation or ACTH exposure. Br J Pharmacol. 2009Nov;158:1330–37. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00399.x.
  • Wong A, Montebello ME, Norberg MM, Rooney K, Lintzeris N, Bruno R, Booth J, Arnold JC, McGregor IS. Exercise increases plasma THC concentrations in regular cannabis users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013 Dec 1;133:763–67. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.07.031.
  • Liguori A, Gatto CP, Robinson JH. Effects of marijuana on equilibrium, psychomotor performance, and simulated driving. Behav Pharmacol. 1998Nov;9:599–609. doi:10.1097/00008877-199811000-00015.
  • Anderson BM, Rizzo M, Block RI, Pearlson GD, O’Leary DS. Sex differences in the effects of marijuana on simulated driving performance. J Psychoact Drugs. 2010;42:19–30. doi:10.1080/02791072.2010.10399782.
  • Khiabani HZ, Bramness JG, Bj⊘rneboe A, M⊘rland J. Relationship between THC concentration in blood and impairment in apprehended drivers. Traffic Inju Prev. 2006 Jul 1;7:111–16. doi:10.1080/15389580600550172.
  • Jones RT, Benowitz N, Bachman J. Clinical studies of cannabis tolerance and dependence. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;282:221–39. doi:10.1111/nyas.1976.282.issue-1.
  • Hart CL, Ilan AB, Gevins A, Gunderson EW, Role K, Colley J, Foltin RW. Neurophysiological and cognitive effects of smoked marijuana in frequent users. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2010Sep;96:333–41. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2010.06.003.
  • Compton RP, Berning A. Drug and alcohol crash risk. U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Washington, DC: NHTSA’S Office of Behavioral Safety Research; 2015. Report No.: DOT HS 812 117.
  • Aldrich J. Correlations genuine and spurious in pearson and yule. Statist Sci. 1995Nov;10:364–76. doi:10.1214/ss/1177009870.
  • Pearson MR, Murphy EM, Doane AN. Impulsivity-like traits and risky driving behaviors among college students. Accid Anal Prev. 2013 Apr 1;53:142–48. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.01.009.
  • Stautz K, Cooper A. Urgency traits and problematic substance use in adolescence: Direct effects and moderation of perceived peer use. Psychol Addict Behav. 2014Jun;28:487–97. doi:10.1037/a0034346.
  • Doucette ML, Frattaroli S, Vernick JS. Oral fluid testing for marijuana intoxication: Enhancing objectivity for roadside DUI testing. Inju Prev. 2018Feb;24:78–80. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2016-042264.
  • Heuberger JAAC, Guan Z, Oyetayo -O-O, Klumpers L, Morrison PD, Beumer TL, van Gerven JMA, et al. Population pharmacokinetic model of THC integrates oral, intravenous, and pulmonary dosing and characterizes short- and long-term pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2015;54:209. doi:10.1007/s40262-014-0195-5. .
  • Meyer P, Langos M, Brenneisen R. Human pharmacokinetics and adverse effects of pulmonary and intravenous THC-CBD formulations. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids. 2018 Jun 12;1:36–43. doi:10.1159/000489034.
  • Ginsburg BC. Toward a comprehensive model of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol pharmacokinetics using a population pharmacokinetics approach. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2015 Feb 1;54:129–31. doi:10.1007/s40262-014-0210-x.
  • Hartman RL, Brown TL, Milavetz G, Spurgin A, Gorelick DA, Gaffney GR, Huestis, MA. Effect of blood collection time on measured 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations: Implications for driving interpretation and drug policy. Clinical Chemistry. 2016;62:367–77. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2015.242651.
  • Fairbairn JW, Liebmann JA, Rowan MG. The stability of cannabis and its preparations on storage. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1976Jan;28:1–7. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.1976.tb04014.x.
  • Cohier C, Mégarbane B, Roussel O. Illicit drugs in oral fluid: Evaluation of two collection devices. J Anal Toxicol. 2017Jan;41:71–76. doi:10.1093/jat/bkw100.
  • Kidwell DA, Holland JC, Athanaselis S. Testing for drugs of abuse in saliva and sweat. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 1998 Aug 21;713:111–35. doi:10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00572-0.
  • Himes SK, Scheidweiler KB, Beck O, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA, Huestis MA. Cannabinoids in exhaled breath following controlled administration of smoked cannabis. Clin Chem. 2013 Dec 1;59:1780–89. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2013.207407.
  • Fierro I, González-Luque JC, Álvarez FJ. The relationship between observed signs of impairment and THC concentration in oral fluid. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014Nov;144:231–38. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.770.
  • Tang MHY, Ching CK, Poon S, Chan SSS, Ng WY, Lam M, Wong CK, Pao R, Lau A, Mak TWL. Evaluation of three rapid oral fluid test devices on the screening of multiple drugs of abuse including ketamine. Forensic Sci Int. 2018May;286:113–20. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.03.004.
  • Jin H, Williams SZ, Chihuri ST, Li G, Chen Q. Validity of oral fluid test for Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in drivers using the 2013 national roadside survey data. Injury Epidemiology [Internet]. 2018 Dec [cited 2019 Apr 3];5. Available from: https://injepijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40621-018-0134-2.
  • Van der Linden T, Wille SMR, Ramírez-Fernandez M, Verstraete AG, Samyn N. Roadside drug testing: Comparison of two legal approaches in Belgium. Forensic Sci Int. 2015Apr;249:148–55. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.01.034.
  • Stuster J. Validation of the standardized field sobriety test battery at 0.08% blood alcohol concentration. Hum Factors. 2006;48:608–14. doi:10.1518/001872006778606895.
  • Stuster J, Burns M, Büx PO Validation of the standardized f ield sobriety test battery at BACsBelowO. 10 Percent. 1998 [cited 2014 Jul 18]; Available from: http://www.dwitrialprep.com/sfst_03.pdf
  • Papafotiou K, Carter JD, Stough C. The relationship between performance on the standardised field sobriety tests, driving performance and the level of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in blood. Forensic Sci Int. 2005 Dec 20;155:172–78. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.11.009.
  • Doroudgar S, Mae Chuang H, Bohnert K, Canedo J, Burrowes S, Perry PJ. Effects of chronic marijuana use on driving performance. Traffic Inj Prev.2018;19:680–686.
  • FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society, Global Road Safety Partnership, World Bank, World Health Organization. Drinking and Driving: a road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners. Geneva, Sitzerland: Global Road Safety Partnership; 2007.
  • Downey LA, King R, Papafotiou K, Swann P, Ogden E, Boorman M, Stough C. Detecting impairment associated with cannabis with and without alcohol on the standardized field sobriety tests. Psychopharmacology. 2012Dec;224:581–89. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2787-9.
  • Bosker WM, Theunissen EL, Conen S, Kuypers KPC, Jeffery WK, Walls HC, Kauert GF, Toennes SW, Moeller MR, Ramaekers JG. A placebo-controlled study to assess standardized field sobriety tests performance during alcohol and cannabis intoxication in heavy cannabis users and accuracy of point of collection testing devices for detecting THC in oral fluid. Psychopharmacology. 2012Oct;223:439–46. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2732-y.
  • Mendelson JH, Babor TF, Kuehnle JC, Rossi AM, Bernstein JG, Mello NK, Greenberg I. Behavioral and biologic aspects of marijuana use. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;282:186–210. doi:10.1111/nyas.1976.282.issue-1.
  • Azorlosa JL, Heishman SJ, Stitzer ML, Mahaffey JM. Marijuana smoking: Effect of varying delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol content and number of puffs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1992 Apr 1;261:114–22.
  • Hart CL, van Gorp W, Haney M, Foltin RW, Fischman MW. Effects of acute smoked marijuana on complex cognitive performance. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001Nov;25:757–65. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00273-1.
  • Hart CL, Ward AS, Haney M, Comer SD, Foltin RW, Fischman MW. Comparison of smoked marijuana and oral Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002Dec;164:407–15. doi:10.1007/s00213-002-1231-y.
  • Zuurman L, Ippel AE, Moin E, Van Gerven JMA. Biomarkers for the effects of cannabis and THC in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2009 Jan 1;67:5–21. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2008.03329.x.
  • Verster JC, Roth T. Predicting psychopharmacological drug effects on actual driving performance (SDLP) from psychometric tests measuring driving-related skills. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2012Mar;220:293–301. doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2484-0.
  • Ramaekers JG, Moeller MR, van Ruitenbeek P, Theunissen EL, Schneider E, Kauert G. Cognition and motor control as a function of Δ9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: Limits of impairment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006 Nov 8;85:114–22. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.03.015.
  • Ramaekers JG. Antidepressants and driver impairment: Empirical evidence from a standard on-the-road test. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003Jan;64:20–29. doi:10.4088/JCP.v64n0106.
  • Moskowitz H. Marihuana and driving. Accid Anal Prev. 1985Aug;17:323–45. doi:10.1016/0001-4575(85)90034-X.
  • Ramaekers JG, Theunissen EL, de Brouwer M, Toennes SW, Moeller MR, Kauert G. Tolerance and cross-tolerance to neurocognitive effects of THC and alcohol in heavy cannabis users. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2011Mar;214:391–401. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2042-1.
  • Ménétrey A, Augsburger M, Favrat B, Pin MA, Rothuizen LE, Appenzeller M, Buclin T, Mangin P, Giroud C. Assessment of driving capability through the use of clinical and psychomotor tests in relation to blood cannabinoids levels following oral administration of 20 mg dronabinol or of a cannabis decoction made with 20 or 60 mg Δ9-THC. J Anal Toxicol. 2005 Jul 1;29:327–38. doi:10.1093/jat/29.5.327.
  • Ramaekers JG, Robbe HWJ, O’Hanlon JF. Marijuana, alcohol and actual driving performance. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2000Oct;15:551–58. doi:10.1002/1099-1077(200010)15:7<551::AID-HUP236>3.0.CO;2-P.
  • Doroudgar S, Chuang HM, Perry PJ, Thomas K, Bohnert K, Canedo J. Driving performance comparing older versus younger drivers. Traffic Inj Prev.2017 02;18:41–46. doi:10.1080/15389588.2016.1194980.
  • Alghnam S, Alkelya M, Alfraidy M, Al-Bedah K, Albabtain IT, Alshenqeety O. Outcomes of road traffic injuries before and after the implementation of a camera ticketing system: a retrospective study from a large trauma center in Saudi Arabia. Ann Saudi Med. 2017Feb;37:1–9. doi:10.5144/0256-4947.2017.1.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.