The impact of cannabis on non-medical opioid use among individuals receiving pharmacotherapies for opioid use disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies

References

• Costa GP. The global burden of disease attributable to alcohol and drug use in 195 countries and territories, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5:987–1012. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30337-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiteford HA, Degenhardt L, Rehm J, Baxter AJ, Ferrari AJ, Erskine HE, Charlson FJ, Norman RE, Flaxman AD, Johns N, et al. Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet. 2013;382:1575–86. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florence C, Luo F, Rice K. The economic burden of opioid use disorder and fatal opioid overdose in the United States, 2017. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;218:108350. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rockett IRH, Caine ED, Connery HS, Greenfield SF. Mortality in the United States from self-injury surpasses diabetes: a prevention imperative. Inj Prev. 2019;25:331–33. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2018-042889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokdad AH, Ballestros K, Echko M, Glenn S, Olsen HE, Mullany E, Lee A, Khan AR, Ahmadi A, Ferrari AJ, et al. The state of US health, 1990-2016: burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors among US States. JAMA. 2018;319:1444–72. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.0158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson N, Kariisa M, Seth P, Smith H, Davis NL. Drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths - United States, 2017-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:290–97. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6911a4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;2009:Cd002209. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002209.pub2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whelan PJ, Remski K. Buprenorphine vs methadone treatment: a review of evidence in both developed and developing worlds. J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2012;3:45–50. doi:10.4103/0976-3147.91934.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahrens E, Wachtendorf LJ, Chiarella LS, Ashrafian S, Suleiman A, Tartler TM, Azizi BA, Chen G, Berger AA, Shay D, et al. Prevalence and association of non-medical cannabis use with post-procedural healthcare utilisation in patients undergoing surgery or interventional procedures: a retrospective cohort study. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;57:101831. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.101831.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crime UNOoDa. World drug report 2021. Vol. 2021. Vienna: UN, Office on Drugs and Crime; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Streck JM, Regan S, Bearnot B, Gupta PS, Kalkhoran S, Kalagher KM, Wakeman S, Rigotti NA. Prevalence of cannabis use and cannabis route of administration among Massachusetts adults in buprenorphine treatment for opioid use disorder. Subst Use Misuse. 2022;57:1104–10. doi:10.1080/10826084.2022.2063899.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voelker R. States Move to Substitute Opioids With Medical Marijuana to Quell Epidemic. JAMA. 2018;320:2408–10. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.17329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerdá M, Wall M, Keyes KM, Galea S, Hasin D. Medical marijuana laws in 50 states: investigating the relationship between state legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse and dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;120:22–27. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carliner H, Brown QL, Sarvet AL, Hasin DS. Cannabis use, attitudes, and legal status in the U.S.: a review. Prev Med. 2017;104:13–23. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.07.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrams DI, Couey P, Shade SB, Kelly ME, Benowitz NL. Cannabinoid–opioid interaction in chronic pain. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011;90:844–51. doi:10.1038/clpt.2011.188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shover CL, Vest NA, Chen D, Stueber A, Falasinnu TO, Hah JM, Kim J, Mackey I, Weber KA 2nd, Ziadni M, et al. Association of state policies allowing medical cannabis for opioid use disorder with dispensary marketing for this indication. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e2010001. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.10001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scavone JL, Sterling RC, Van Bockstaele EJ. Cannabinoid and opioid interactions: implications for opiate dependence and withdrawal. Neuroscience. 2013;248:637–54. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.04.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper ZD, Bedi G, Ramesh D, Balter R, Comer SD, Haney M. Impact of co-administration of oxycodone and smoked cannabis on analgesia and abuse liability. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43:2046–55. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0011-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imtiaz S, Shield KD, Roerecke M, Cheng J, Popova S, Kurdyak P, Fischer B, Rehm J. The burden of disease attributable to cannabis use in Canada in 2012. Addiction. 2016;111:653–62. doi:10.1111/add.13237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachenmeier DW, Rehm J. Comparative risk assessment of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and other illicit drugs using the margin of exposure approach. Sci Rep. 2015;5:8126. doi:10.1038/srep08126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell G, Hall WD, Peacock A, Lintzeris N, Bruno R, Larance B, Nielsen S, Cohen M, Chan G, Mattick RP, et al. Effect of cannabis use in people with chronic non-cancer pain prescribed opioids: findings from a 4-year prospective cohort study. Lancet Public Health. 2018;3:e341–e50. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30110-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olfson M, Wall MM, Liu SM, Blanco C. Cannabis use and risk of prescription opioid use disorder in the United States. Am J Psychiatry. 2018;175:47–53. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17040413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson J, Mills K, Freeman TP, Sunderland M, Visontay R, Marel C. Weeding out the truth: a systematic review and meta-analysis on the transition from cannabis use to opioid use and opioid use disorders, abuse or dependence. Addiction. 2022;117:284–98. doi:10.1111/add.15581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBrien H, Luo C, Sanger N, Zielinski L, Bhatt M, Zhu XM, Marsh DC, Thabane L, Samaan Z. Cannabis use during methadone maintenance treatment for opioid use disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ Open. 2019;7:E665–e673. doi:10.9778/cmajo.20190026.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lake S, St Pierre M. The relationship between cannabis use and patient outcomes in medication-based treatment of opioid use disorder: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2020;82:101939. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapira M, Gafni M, Sarne Y. Long-term interactions between opioid and cannabinoid agonists at the cellular level: cross-desensitization and downregulation. Brain Res. 2003;960:190–200. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(02)03842-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71. doi:10.1136/bmj.n71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooke BS, Schwartz TA, Pawlik TM. MOOSE reporting guidelines for meta-analyses of observational studies. JAMA Surg. 2021;156:787–88. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2021.0522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroup DF, Berlin JA, Morton SC, Olkin I, Williamson GD, Rennie D, Moher D, Becker BJ, Sipe TA, Thacker SB, et al. Meta-analysis of observational studies in EpidemiologyA proposal for reporting. JAMA. 2000;283:2008–12. doi:10.1001/jama.283.15.2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards D. Handsearching still a valuable element of the systematic review. Evid Based Dent. 2008;9:85. doi:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400602.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lunny C, Pieper D, Thabet P, Kanji S. Managing overlap of primary study results across systematic reviews: practical considerations for authors of overviews of reviews. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2021;21:140. doi:10.1186/s12874-021-01269-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sterne JA, Hernán MA, Reeves BC, Savović J, Berkman ND, Viswanathan M, Henry D, Altman DG, Ansari MT, Boutron I, et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ. 2016;355:i4919. doi:10.1136/bmj.i4919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters JL, Sutton AJ, Jones DR, Abrams KR, Rushton L. Contour-enhanced meta-analysis funnel plots help distinguish publication bias from other causes of asymmetry. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61:991–96. doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2007.11.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315:629–34. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings P. The relative merits of risk ratios and odds ratios. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2009;163:438–45. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langan D, Higgins JPT, Jackson D, Bowden J, Veroniki AA, Kontopantelis E, Viechtbauer W, Simmonds M. A comparison of heterogeneity variance estimators in simulated random-effects meta-analyses. Res Synth Methods. 2019;10:83–98. doi:10.1002/jrsm.1316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viechtbauer W, Cheung M-L. Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Res Synth Methods. 2010;1:112–25. doi:10.1002/jrsm.11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balduzzi S, Rücker G, Schwarzer G. How to perform a meta-analysis with R: a practical tutorial. Evid Based Ment Health. 2019;22:153–60. doi:10.1136/ebmental-2019-300117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayet A, Lions C, Roux P, Mora M, Maradan G, Morel A, Michel L, Marimoutou C, Carrieri MP. Variations in cannabis use level and correlates in opiate-users on methadone maintenance treatment: a French prospective study. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015;58:100–05. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2015.06.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lions C, Carrieri MP, Michel L, Mora M, Marcellin F, Morel A, Spire B, Roux P. Predictors of non-prescribed opioid use after one year of methadone treatment: an attributable-risk approach (ANRS-Methaville trial). Drug Alcohol Depen. 2014;135:1–8. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.10.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lake S, Kerr T, Buxton J, Walsh Z, Cooper ZD, Socías ME, Fairbairn N, Hayashi K, Milloy MJ. The cannabis-dependent relationship between methadone treatment dose and illicit opioid use in a community-based cohort of people who use drugs. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2023;8:155–65. doi:10.1089/can.2021.0080.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Socías ME, Choi J, Lake S, Wood E, Valleriani J, Hayashi K, Kerr T, Milloy MJ. Cannabis use is associated with reduced risk of exposure to fentanyl among people on opioid agonist therapy during a community-wide overdose crisis. Drug Alcohol Depen. 2021;219:108420. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosic T, Kapoor R, Panesar B, Naji L, Chai DB, Sanger N, Marsh DC, Worster A, Thabane L, Samaan Z. The association between cannabis use and outcome in pharmacological treatment for opioid use disorder. Harm Reduct J. 2021;18:24. doi:10.1186/s12954-021-00468-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naji L, Rosic T, Sanger N, Dennis B, Hillmer A, Hudson J, Worster A, Paul J, Marsh DC, Thabane L, et al. Cannabis use and opioid relapse: an exploratory survival analysis of prospectively collected data. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:1046649. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1046649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunting AM, Krawczyk N, Choo TH, Pavlicova M, McNeely J, Tofighi B, Rotrosen J, Nunes E, Lee JD. Polysubstance use before and during treatment with medication for opioid use disorder: prevalence and association with treatment outcomes. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2022;143:108830. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2022.108830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor SL, Copeland AL, Kopak AM, Hoffmann NG, Herschman PL, Polukhina N. Outcome predictors for patients receiving methadone maintenance treatment: findings from a retrospective multi-site study. J Subst Use. 2016;21:601–13. doi:10.3109/14659891.2015.1118564.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein DH, Preston KL. Does cannabis use predict poor outcome for heroin-dependent patients on maintenance treatment? Past findings and more evidence against. Addiction. 2003;98:269–79. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00310.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somers CJ, O’Connor J. Retrospective study of outcomes, for patients admitted to a drug treatment centre board. Ir Med J. 2012;105:295–98.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill KP, Bennett HE, Griffin ML, Connery HS, Fitzmaurice GM, Subramaniam G, Woody GE, Weiss RD. Association of cannabis use with opioid outcomes among opioid-dependent youth. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132:342–45. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evren C, Karabulut V, Can Y, Bozkurt M, Umut G, Evren B. Predictors of outcome during a 6-month follow-up among heroin dependent patients receiving buprenorphine/naloxone maintenance treatment. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni-Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2014;24:311–22. doi:10.5455/bcp.20140310072258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobell LC, Sobell MB. Timeline follow-back. In: Litten RZ JP Allen, editors Measuring alcohol consumption: psychosocial and biochemical methods. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 1992. pp. 41–72.
   Google Scholar
• Lee JD, Nunes EV Jr., Novo P, Bachrach K, Bailey GL, Bhatt S, Farkas S, Fishman M, Gauthier P, Hodgkins CC, et al. Comparative effectiveness of extended-release naltrexone versus buprenorphine-naloxone for opioid relapse prevention (X: BOT): a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;391:309–18. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32812-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman DA, Weinstein MG, Havassy BE, Hall SM. Factors associated with lapses to heroin use during methadone maintenance. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;52:183–92. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00092-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roux P, Carrieri PM, Cohen J, Ravaux I, Spire B, Gossop M, Comer SD. Non-medical use of opioids among HIV-infected opioid dependent individuals on opioid maintenance treatment: the need for a more comprehensive approach. Harm Reduct J. 2011;8:31. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-8-31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Church SH, Rothenberg JL, Sullivan MA, Bornstein G, Nunes EV. Concurrent substance use and outcome in combined behavioral and naltrexone therapy for opiate dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2001;27:441–52. doi:10.1081/ADA-100104511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scavone JL, Sterling RC, Weinstein SP, Van Bockstaele EJ. Impact of cannabis use during stabilization on methadone maintenance treatment. Am J Addict. 2013;22:344–51. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12044.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxon AJ, Wells EA, Fleming C, Jackson TR, Calsyn DA. Pre-treatment characteristics, program philosophy and level of ancillary services as predictors of methadone maintenance treatment outcome. Addiction. 1996;91:1197–209. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1996.918119711.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budney AJ, Bickel WK, Amass L. Marijuana use and treatment outcome among opioid-dependent patients. Addiction. 1998;93:493–503. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.9344935.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raby WN, Carpenter KM, Rothenberg J, Brooks AC, Jiang H, Sullivan M, Bisaga A, Comer S, Nunes EV. Intermittent marijuana use is associated with improved retention in naltrexone treatment for opiate-dependence. Am J Addict. 2009;18:301–08. doi:10.1080/10550490902927785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weizman T, Gelkopf M, Melamed Y, Adelson M, Bleich A. Cannabis abuse is not a risk factor for treatment outcome in methadone maintenance treatment: a 1-year prospective study in an Israeli clinic. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2004;38:42–46. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2003.01296.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrahamsson T, Widinghoff C, Lilliebladh A, Gedeon C, Nilvall K, Hakansson A. Interim buprenorphine treatment in opiate dependence: A pilot effectiveness study. Subst Abus. 2016;37:104–09. doi:10.1080/08897077.2015.1065541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradford AC, Bradford WD, Abraham A, Bagwell Adams G. Association between US state medical cannabis laws and opioid prescribing in the medicare part D population. JAMA Intern Med. 2018;178:667–72. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.0266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castillo-Carniglia A, Rivera-Aguirre A, Santaella-Tenorio J, Fink DS, Crystal S, Ponicki W, Gruenewald P, Martins SS, Keyes KM, Cerdá M. Changes in opioid and benzodiazepine poisoning deaths after cannabis legalization in the US: a county-level analysis, 2002–2020. Epidemiology. 2023;34:467–75. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000001609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shover CL, Davis CS, Gordon SC, Humphreys K. Association between medical cannabis laws and opioid overdose mortality has reversed over time. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019;116:12624–26. doi:10.1073/pnas.1903434116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Aquino JP, Sofuoglu M, Stefanovics E, Rosenheck R. Adverse consequences of co-occurring opioid use disorder and cannabis use disorder compared to opioid use disorder only. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2019;45:527–37. doi:10.1080/00952990.2019.1607363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Aquino JP, Sherif M, Radhakrishnan R, Cahill JD, Ranganathan M, D’Souza DC. The psychiatric consequences of cannabinoids. Clin Ther. 2018;40:1448–56. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2018.03.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank D. “That’s no longer tolerated”: policing patients’ use of non-opioid substances in methadone maintenance treatment. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2021;53:10–17. doi:10.1080/02791072.2020.1824046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurd YL, Spriggs S, Alishayev J, Winkel G, Gurgov K, Kudrich C, Oprescu AM, Salsitz E. Cannabidiol for the reduction of cue-induced craving and anxiety in drug-abstinent individuals with heroin use disorder: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2019;176:911–22. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.18101191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar