Initial evidence of reliability and validity of an implicit association test assessing attitudes toward individuals who use substances

References

• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders [internet]. 5th ed. American Psychiatric Association; 2013 [cited 2023 Mar 31]. Available from: https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Results from the 2021 national survey on drug use and health: detailed tables. 2022. (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration).
   Google Scholar
• Room R. Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005 Mar;24:143–55. doi:10.1080/09595230500102434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson C, Noblett J, Parke H, Clement S, Caffrey A, Gale-Grant O, Schulze B, Druss B, Thornicroft G. Mental health-related stigma in health care and mental health-care settings. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014 Nov;1:467–82. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00023-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Boekel LC, Brouwers EPM, van Weeghel J, Garretsen HFL. Stigma among health professionals towards patients with substance use disorders and its consequences for healthcare delivery: systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013 Jul;131:23–35. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler ML, Phelan JC, Link BG. Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. Am J Public Health. 2013 May;103:813–21. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornicroft G. Stigma and discrimination limit access to mental health care. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc. 2008;17:14–19. doi:10.1017/S1121189X00002621.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahern J, Stuber J, Galea S. Stigma, discrimination and the health of illicit drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007 May 11;88:188–96. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.10.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnyder N, Panczak R, Groth N, Schultze-Lutter F. Association between mental health-related stigma and active help-seeking: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;210:261–68. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.189464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link BG, Phelan JC. Conceptualizing stigma. Annu Rev Sociol. 2001 Aug;27:363–85. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Hippel W, Brener L, von Hippel C. Implicit prejudice toward injecting drug users predicts intentions to change jobs among drug and alcohol nurses. Psychol Sci. 2008 Jan;19:7–11. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02037.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly JF, Dow SJ, Westerhoff C. Does our choice of substance-related terms influence perceptions of treatment need? An empirical investigation with two commonly used terms. J Drug Issues. 2010 Oct;40:805–18. doi:10.1177/002204261004000403.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek BA, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. The implicit association test at age 7: a methodological and conceptual Review. Automatic processes in social thinking and behavior. 2007;4:265–292.
   Google Scholar
• Uhlmann EL, Leavitt K, Menges JI, Koopman J, Howe M, Johnson RE. Getting explicit about the implicit: a taxonomy of implicit measures and guide for their use in organizational research. Organ Res Methods. 2012 Oct;15:553–601. doi:10.1177/1094428112442750.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne BK, Hannay JW. Implicit bias reflects systemic racism. Trends Cogn Sci. 2021 Nov;25:927–36. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2021.08.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann W, Gawronski B, Gschwendner T, Le H, Schmitt M. A meta-analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2005 Oct;31:1369–85. doi:10.1177/0146167205275613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio RH, Jackson JR, Dunton BC, Williams CJ. Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: a bona fide pipeline? J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995 Dec;69:1013–27. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron CD, Brown-Iannuzzi JL, Payne BK. Sequential priming measures of implicit social cognition: a meta-analysis of associations with behavior and explicit attitudes. Personal Soc Psychol Rev. 2012 Nov;16:330–50. doi:10.1177/1088868312440047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurdi B, Seitchik AE, Axt JR, Carroll TJ, Karapetyan A, Kaushik N, Tomezsko D, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. Relationship between the implicit association test and intergroup behavior: a meta-analysis. Am Psychol. 2019 Jul;74:569–86. doi:10.1037/amp0000364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brener L, von Hippel W. Measuring attitudes toward injecting drug users and people with hepatitis C. Subst Use Misuse. 2008;43:295–302. doi:10.1080/10826080701202627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luoma JB, O’Hair AK, Kohlenberg BS, Hayes SC, Fletcher L. The development and psychometric properties of a new measure of perceived stigma toward substance users. Subst Use Misuse. 2010;45:47–57. doi:10.3109/10826080902864712.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luty J, Fekadu D, Umoh O, Gallagher J. Validation of a short instrument to measure stigmatised attitudes towards mental illness. Psychiatr Bull. 2006 Jul;30:257–60. doi:10.1192/pb.30.7.257.
   Google Scholar
• Tuliao AP, Holyoak D. Psychometric properties of the perceived stigma towards substance users scale: factor structure, internal consistency, and associations with help-seeking variables. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2020 Mar 3;46:158–66. doi:10.1080/00952990.2019.1658198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown SA. Standardized measures for substance use stigma. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011 Jul;116:137–41. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.12.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palamar JJ, Kiang MV, Halkitis PN. Development and psychometric evaluation of scales that assess stigma associated with illicit drug users. Subst Use Misuse. 2011 Sep 13;46:1457–67. doi:10.3109/10826084.2011.596606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schomerus G, Schwahn C, Holzinger A, Corrigan PW, Grabe HJ, Carta MG, Angermeyer MC. Evolution of public attitudes about mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis: evolution of public attitudes. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012 Jun;125:440–52. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01826.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lien YY, Lin HS, Tsai CH, Lien YJ, Wu TT. Changes in attitudes toward mental illness in healthcare professionals and students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019 Nov 22;16:4655. doi:10.3390/ijerph16234655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers SA, Earnshaw VA, D’Ambrosio B, Courchesne N, Werb D, Smith LR. The intersection of gender and drug use-related stigma: a mixed methods systematic review and synthesis of the literature. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021 Jun;223:108706. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earnshaw VA. Stigma and substance use disorders: a clinical, research, and advocacy agenda. Am Psychol. 2020 Dec;75:1300–11. doi:10.1037/amp0000744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bustos-Gamiño M, Mora-Ríos J, Villatoro-Velázquez J, Fleiz-Bautista C, Molina-López A, Medina-Mora ME. Changes in attitudes toward people with substance use disorder: a comparative study of the general population in Mexico. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Jul 13;19:8538. doi:10.3390/ijerph19148538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulenberg J, Johnston L, O’Malley P, Bachman J, Miech R, Patrick M. Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2019: volume II, college students and adults ages 19-60. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Barenie RE, Cernasev A, Heidel RE, Stewart S, Hohmeier K. Faculty, staff, and student perceptions of substance use disorder stigma in health profession training programs: a quantitative study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2023 Jan 6;18:2. doi:10.1186/s13011-022-00509-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meltzer EC, Suppes A, Burns S, Shuman A, Orfanos A, Sturiano CV, Charney P, Fins JJ. Stigmatization of substance use disorders among internal medicine residents. Subst Abuse. 2013 Oct;34:356–62. doi:10.1080/08897077.2013.815143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornfield ZAD, Hubley AM. Counselors’ attitudes towards working with clients with substance use disorders. Couns Psychol. 2020 Jul;48:630–56. doi:10.1177/0011000020915451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mundon CR, Anderson ML, Najavits LM. Attitudes toward substance abuse clients: an empirical study of clinical psychology trainees. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2015 Aug 8;47:293–300. doi:10.1080/02791072.2015.1076090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brener L, Rose G, Treloar C, Cama EJ, Whiticker M. Mental health support workers’ attitudes towards hepatitis C and injecting drug use: barriers to recovery? Ment Health Subst Use. 2014 Jul 3;7:217–29. doi:10.1080/17523281.2013.806951.
   Google Scholar
• Dahl RA, Vakkalanka JP, Harland KK, Radke J. Investigating healthcare provider bias toward patients who use drugs using a survey-based implicit association test: pilot study. J Addict Med. 2022 Sep;16:557–62. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FitzGerald C, Hurst S. Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: a systematic review. BMC Med Ethics. 2017 Dec;18:19. doi:10.1186/s12910-017-0179-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopal DP, Chetty U, O’Donnell P, Gajria C, Blackadder-Weinstein J. Implicit bias in healthcare: clinical practice, research and decision making. Future Healthc J. 2021 Mar;8:40–48. doi:10.7861/fhj.2020-0233.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maina IW, Belton TD, Ginzberg S, Singh A, Johnson TJ. A decade of studying implicit racial/ethnic bias in healthcare providers using the implicit association test. Social Sci Med. 2018 Feb;199:219–29. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.05.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph OR, Flint SW, Raymond-Williams R, Awadzi R, Johnson J. Understanding healthcare students’ experiences of racial bias: a narrative review of the role of implicit bias and potential interventions in educational settings. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Dec 3;18:12771. doi:10.3390/ijerph182312771.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forscher PS, Lai CK, Axt JR, Ebersole CR, Herman M, Devine PG, Nosek BA. A meta-analysis of procedures to change implicit measures. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2019 Sep;117:522–59. doi:10.1037/pspa0000160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bar-Anan Y, Nosek BA. A comparative investigation of seven indirect attitude measures. Behav Res Methods. 2014 Sep;46:668–88. doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0410-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas BD, Ewell PJ, Brauer M. Data quality in online human-subjects research: comparisons between MTurk, Prolific, CloudResearch, Qualtrics, and SONA. Hallam JS, editor. PLoS One. 2023 Mar 14;18:e0279720. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peer E, Rothschild D, Gordon A, Evernden Z, Damer E. Data quality of platforms and panels for online behavioral research. Behav Res Methods. 2021 Sep 29;54:1643–62. doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01694-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald AG, Poehlman TA, Uhlmann EL, Banaji MR. Understanding and using the implicit association test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009 Jul;97:17–41. doi:10.1037/a0015575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul F, Erdfelder E, Buchner A, Lang AG. Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behav Res Methods. 2009 Nov;41:1149–60. doi:10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei Y, McGrath PJ, Hayden J, Kutcher S. Mental health literacy measures evaluating knowledge, attitudes and help-seeking: a scoping review. Bmc Psychiatry. 2015 Dec;15:291. doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0681-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei Y, McGrath P, Hayden J, Kutcher S. The quality of mental health literacy measurement tools evaluating the stigma of mental illness: a systematic review. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2018 Oct;27:433–62. doi:10.1017/S2045796017000178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brener L, Hippel WV, Kippax S, Preacher KJ. The role of physician and nurse attitudes in the health care of injecting drug users. Subst Use Misuse. 2010 May;45:1007–18. doi:10.3109/10826081003659543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stöber J. The social desirability scale-17 (SDS-17). Eur J Psychol Assess. 2001 Sep;17:222–32. doi:10.1027//1015-5759.17.3.222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake BF, Valdiserri J, Neuendorf KA, Nemeth J. Validity of the SDS-17 measure of social desirability in the American context. Personal Individ Differ. 2006 Jun;40:1625–36. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran US, Stieger S, Voracek M. Psychometric analysis of Stöber’s social desirability scale (SDS—17): an item response theory perspective. Psychol Rep. 2012 Dec;111:870–84. doi:10.2466/03.09.PR0.111.6.870-884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek BA, Smyth FL, Hansen JJ, Devos T, Lindner NM, Ranganath KA, Smith CT, Olson KR, Chugh D, Greenwald AG, et al. Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. Eur Rev Soc Psychol. 2007 Nov;18:36–88. doi:10.1080/10463280701489053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane KA, Banaji MR, Nosek BA, Greenwald AG. Understanding and using the implicit association test: IV, what we know (so far) about the method. In: Wittenbrink B, Schwarz N, editors. Implicit measures of attitudes. New York: Guilford Press; 2003:59.
   Google Scholar
• Nosek BA, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2005 Feb;31:166–80. doi:10.1177/0146167204271418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald AG, Nosek BA, Banaji MR. Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2003;85:197–216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acock AC. Working with missing values. J Marriage Fam. 2005 Nov;67:1012–28. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00191.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eekhout I, de Vet HCW, Twisk JWR, Brand JPL, de Boer MR, Heymans MW. Missing data in a multi-item instrument were best handled by multiple imputation at the item score level. J Clin Epidemiol. 2014 Mar;67:335–42. doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2013.09.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawilowsky SS. New effect size rules of thumb. J Mod Appl Stat Methods. 2009 Nov 1;8:597–99. doi:10.22237/jmasm/1257035100.
   Google Scholar
• West CP, Dyrbye LN, Shanafelt TD. Physician burnout: contributors, consequences and solutions. J Intern Med. 2018 Jun;283:516–29. doi:10.1111/joim.12752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zestcott CA, Blair IV, Stone J. Examining the presence, consequences, and reduction of implicit bias in health care: a narrative review. Group Process Intergroup Relat. 2016 Jul;19:528–42. doi:10.1177/1368430216642029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schabert J, Browne JL, Mosely K, Speight J. Social stigma in diabetes: a framework to understand a growing problem for an increasing epidemic. Patient - Patient-Centered Outcomes Res. 2013 Mar;6:1–10. doi:10.1007/s40271-012-0001-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdoli S, Doosti Irani M, Hardy LR, Funnell M. A discussion paper on stigmatizing features of diabetes. Nurs Open. 2018 Apr;5:113–19. doi:10.1002/nop2.112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynes SN, Lench HC. Incremental validity of new clinical assessment measures. Psychol Assess. 2003 Dec;15:456–66. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.15.4.456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson KD, Herdman AO. Understanding the impact of convergent validity on research results. Organ Res Methods. 2012 Jan;15:17– 32. doi:10.1177/1094428110392383.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan P. How stigma interferes with mental health care. Am Psychol. 2004 Oct;59:614–25. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.7.614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross L, Greene D, House P. The “false consensus effect”: an egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. J Exp Soc Psychol. 1977 May 1;13:279–301. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfson S. Students’ estimates of the prevalence of drug use: evidence for a false consensus effect. Psychology Of Addictive Behaviors. 2000;4:295–98. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.14.3.295. 3
   Google Scholar
• Sigelman CK. Social distance from stigmatized groups: false consensus and false uniqueness effects on responding. Rehabil Psychol. 1991;36:139–51. doi:10.1037/h0079081.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein G. Hot-cold empathy gaps and medical decision making. Health Psychol. 2005;24:S49–56. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.S49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gawronski B. Six lessons for a cogent science of implicit bias and its criticism. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2019 Jul;14:574–95. doi:10.1177/1745691619826015.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar