Medicinal cannabis use among young adults during California’s transition from legalized medical use to adult-use: a longitudinal analysis

References

• California Legislative Information. SB-94 cannabis: medicinal and adult use. 2017 June 27 [accessed 2023 May 10]. https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180SB94.
   Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: results from the 2020 National survey on drug use and health. Rockville, (MD): Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality; 2021 [accessed 2023 May 10]. HHS Publication No.PEP21-07-01-003, NSDUH Series H-56. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/.
   Google Scholar
• Zellers SM, Ross JM, Saunders GR, Ellingson JM, Anderson JE, Corley RP, Iacono W, Hewitt JK, Hopfer CJ, McGue MK, et al. Impacts of recreational cannabis legalization on cannabis use: a longitudinal discordant twin study. Addiction. 2023 Jan;118:110–18. doi:10.1111/add.16016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Athanassiou M, Dumais A, Zouaoui I, Potvin S. The clouded debate: a systematic review of comparative longitudinal studies examining the impact of recreational cannabis legalization on key public health outcomes. Front Psychiatry. 2023 Jan 11;13:1060656. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1060656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr DC, Levy NS, Bae H, Boustead AE, Martins SS. Cannabis and alcohol use by US young adults, 2008–2019: changes in prevalence after recreational cannabis legalization. Am J Prev Med. 2023 Jun 17;65(6):983–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerdá M, Mauro C, Hamilton A, Levy NS, Santaella-Tenorio J, Hasin D, Wall MM, Keyes KM, Martins SS. Association between recreational marijuana legalization in the United States and changes in marijuana use and cannabis use disorder from 2008 to 2016. JAMA Psychiarty. 2020 Feb 1;77:165–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melchior M, Nakamura A, Bolze C, Hausfater F, El Khoury F, Mary-Krause M, Da Silva MA. Does liberalisation of cannabis policy influence levels of use in adolescents and young adults? A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e025880. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parnes JE, Smith JK, Conner BT. Reefer madness or much ado about nothing? Cannabis legalization outcomes among young adults in the United States. J Drug Policy. 2018 Jun 1;56:116–20. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.03.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boehnke KF, Dean O, Haffajee RL, Hosanagar A. US trends in registration for medical cannabis and reasons for use from 2016 to 2020: an observational study. Ann Int Med. 2022;175:945–51. doi:10.7326/M22-0217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedorova EV, Ataiants J, Wong CF, Iverson E, Lankenau SE. Changes in medical cannabis patient status before and after cannabis legalization in California: associations with cannabis and other drug use. J Psychoact Drugs. 2022;54:129–39. doi:10.1080/02791072.2021.1926604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacula RL, Jacobson M, Maksabedian EJ. In the weeds: a baseline view of cannabis use among legalizing states and their neighbours. Addict. 2016;111:973–80. doi:10.1111/add.13282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankenau SE, Ataiants J, Mohanty S, Schrager S, Iverson E, Wong CF. Health conditions and motivations for marijuana use among young adult medical marijuana patients and non‐patient marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2018;37:237–246. doi:10.1111/dar.12534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh Z, Callaway R, Belle-Isle L, Capler R, Kay R, Lucas P, Holtzman S. Cannabis for therapeutic purposes: patient characteristics, access, and reasons for use. Int J Drug Policy. 2013;24:511–516. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.08.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandre CR. The Rhode Island medical marijuana program: an exploratory study. Policy Polit Nurs Pract. 2011;12:104–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O’Brien PK. Medical marijuana and social control: escaping criminalization and embracing medicalization. Deviant Behav. 2013;34:423–443. doi:10.1080/01639625.2012.735608.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asselin A, Lamarre OB, Chamberland R, McNeil SJ, Demers E, Zongo A. A description of self-medication with cannabis among adults with legal access to cannabis in Quebec, Canada. J Cannabis Res. 2022;4:26. doi:10.1186/s42238-022-00135-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wallis D, Coatsworth JD, Mennis J, Riggs NR, Zaharakis N, Russell MA, Brown AR, Rayburn S, Radford A, Hale C, et al. Predicting self-medication with cannabis in young adults with hazardous cannabis use. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:1850. doi:10.3390/ijerph19031850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung J, Chan G, Stjepanović D, Chung JYC, Hall W, Hammond D. Prevalence and self-reported reasons of cannabis use for medical purposes in USA and Canada. Psychopharmacol. 2022;239:1509–19. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06047-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AminiLari M, Busse JW, Turna J, MacKillop J. Declared rationale for cannabis use before and after legalization for nonmedical use: a longitudinal study of community adults in Ontario. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2022;8:1133–39. 10.1089/can.2021.0128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dai H, Richter KP. A national survey of marijuana use among US adults with medical conditions, 2016-2017. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2:e1911936. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.11936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matson TE, Carrell DS, Bobb JF, Cronkite DJ, Oliver MM, Luce C, Ghitza UE, Hsu CW, Campbell CI, Browne KC, et al. Prevalence of medical cannabis use and associated health conditions documented in electronic health records among primary care patients in Washington State. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e219375–219375. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.9375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meng H, Gabrielle PM, Prabjit A, Amol D, Bana S, Dominicis M, Ladha KS, Fiorellino J, Huang A, Yuvaraj K, et al. Patient-reported outcomes in those consuming medical cannabis: a prospective longitudinal observational study in chronic pain patients. Can J Anesth. 2021;68:633–44. doi:10.1007/s12630-020-01903-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlienz NJ, Scalsky R, Martin EL, Jackson H, Munson J, Strickland JC, Bonn-Miller MO, Loflin M, Vandrey R. A cross-sectional and prospective comparison of medicinal cannabis users and controls on self-reported health. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2021;6:548–58. doi:10.1089/can.2019.0096.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith JM, Mader J, Szeto AC, Arria AM, Winters KC, Wilkes TC. Cannabis use for medicinal purposes among Canadian university students. Can J Psychiatry. 2019;64:351–55. doi:10.1177/0706743718818420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fales JL, Ladd BO, Magnan RE. Pain relief as a motivation for cannabis use among young adult users with and without chronic pain. J Pain. 2019;20:908–916. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2019.02.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston NR, Hetelekides E, Bravo AJ, Looby A, Stimulant Norms and Prevalence (SNAP) Study Team. Negative Affect regulation and marijuana use in college students: evaluating the mediating roles of coping and sleep motives. J Psychoact Drugs. 2022 Mar 27;55:1–10. doi:10.1080/02791072.2022.2054747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunaief R, Bravo AJ, Henson J. Changes in mental health symptoms as a predictor of cannabis coping motives and consequences: examining the impact of COVID-19 among college students. Cannabis. 2023;6:1–8. https://publications.sciences.ucf.edu/cannabis/index.php/Cannabis/article/view/163.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hasin DS, Borodovsky J, Shmulewitz D, Walsh C, Struble CA, Livne O, Habib MI, Fink DS, Aharonovich E, Budney A. Adult use of highly-potent Δ9-THC cannabis concentrate products by US state cannabis legalization status, 2021. Addict Behav. 2023 May 1;140:107617. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smart R, Caulkins JP, Kilmer B, Davenport S, Midgette G. Variation in cannabis potency and prices in a newly legal market: evidence from 30 million cannabis sales in Washington state. Addiction. 2017 Dec;112:2167–77. doi:10.1111/add.13886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrilli K, Ofori S, Hines L, Taylor G, Adams S, Freeman TP. Association of cannabis potency with mental ill health and addiction: a systematic review. Lancet Psychiatry. 2022 Sep 1;9:736–50. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(22)00161-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankenau SE, Fedorova EV, Reed M, Schrager SM, Iverson E, Wong CF. Marijuana practices and patterns of use among young adult medical marijuana patients and non-patient marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;170:181–188. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ataiants J, Fedorova EV, Wong CF, Iverson E, Gold JI, Lankenau SE. Pain profiles among young adult cannabis users: an analysis of antecedent factors and distal outcomes. Subst Use Misuse. 2021;56:1144–1154. doi:10.1080/10826084.2021.1910707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derogatis LR. BSI 18, Brief Symptom Inventory 18: administration, scoring and procedures manual. Minneapolis (MN): NCS Pearson, Inc.; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Cleeland CS . The Brief Pain Inventory. 2009. Available from: https://www.mdanderson.org/documents/Departments-and-Divisions/Symptom-Research/BPI_UserGuide.pdf [accessed 22 Jan 2024].
   Google Scholar
• Lee CM, Neighbors C, Hendershot CS, Grossbard JR. Development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive marijuana motives questionnaire. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2009;70:279–87. doi:10.15288/jsad.2009.70.279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brammer WA, Conn BM, Iverson E, Lankenau SE, Dodson C, Wong CF. Coping motives mediate the association of trauma history with problematic cannabis use in young adult medical cannabis patients and non-patient cannabis users. Subst Use Misuse. 2022 Apr 16;57:684–97. doi:10.1080/10826084.2022.2026970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong CF, Chokron-Garneau H, Iverson E, Lankenau S. Differential impact of marijuana motivations on use and problematic use among medical marijuana patients and non-patient users in Los Angeles. Poster presented at: the American Public Health Association (APHA) Conference; 2016; Denver (CO).
   Google Scholar
• Gossop M, Darke S, Griffiths P, Hando J, Powis B, Hall W, Strang J. The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS): psychometric properties of the SDS in English and Australian samples of heroin, cocaine and amphetamine users. Addict. 1995;90:607–14. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1995.9056072.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin G, Copeland J, Gates P, Gilmour S. The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) in an adolescent population of cannabis users: reliability, validity and diagnostic cut-off. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;83:90–93. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.10.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Pol P, Liebregts N, De Graaf R, Korf DJ, Van den Brink W, Van Laar M. Reliability and validity of the severity of dependence scale for detecting cannabis dependence in frequent cannabis users. Int J Methods Psych Res. 2013;22:138–43. doi:10.1002/mpr.1385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman BJ, Masyn KE, Conger RD. New approaches to studying problem behaviors: a comparison of methods for modeling longitudinal, categorical adolescent drinking data. Dev Psychol. 2009;45:652. doi:10.1037/a0014851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund-Gibson K, Masyn KE. Covariates and mixture modeling: results of a simulation study exploring the impact of misspecified effects on class enumeration. Struct Equ Model. 2016 Nov 1;23:782–97. doi:10.1080/10705511.2016.1221313.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masyn KE. Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In: Little T, editor. The Oxford handbook of quantitative methods. New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 2013. p. 551–611.
   Google Scholar
• Weller BE, Bowen NK, Faubert SJ. Latent class analysis: a guide to best practice. J Black Psychol. 2020;46:287–311. doi:10.1177/0095798420930932.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov T, Muthén B. Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: three-step approaches using M plus. Struct Equ Model. 2014;21:329–341. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.915181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund-Gibson K, Grimm R, Quirk M, Furlong M. A latent transition mixture model using the three-step specification. Struct Equ Model. 2014;21:439–54. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.915375.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noack R, Höfler M, Lüken U. Cannabis use patterns and their association with DSM-IV cannabis dependence and gender. Eur Addict Res. 2011;17:321–28. doi:10.1159/000333338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosty DB, Seeley JR, Farmer RF, Stevens JJ, Lewinsohn PM. Trajectories of cannabis use disorder: risk factors, clinical characteristics and outcomes. Addict. 2017;112:279–87. doi:10.1111/add.13557.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Windle M. Sex differences in substance use from adolescence to young adulthood: tests of increases in emergent adulthood and maturing out in later young adulthood. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;207:107813. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107813.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• California Department of Public Health. Medical Marijuana Identification Card Program; last updated 2023 Jul 13. https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CHSI/Pages/MMICP.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Khurana S, Fedorova EV, Kaur H, Mitchell A, Kosdon S, Ataiants J, Conn B, Wong CF, Lankenau SE. “I feel validated”: participation in a medical cannabis program in the context of legalized recreational use. J Drug Issues. 2022 Oct;52:601–15. doi:10.1177/00220426221097924.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne GB, Fogel C. Perspectives on cannabis legalization among Canadian recreational users. Contemp Drug Probl. 2017 Mar;44:12–31. doi:10.1177/0091450916670393.
   Google Scholar
• Fitzcharles MA, Rampakakis E, Sampalis J, Shir Y, Cohen M, Starr M, Häuser W. Medical cannabis use by rheumatology patients following recreational legalization: a prospective observational study of 1000 patients in Canada. ACR Open Rheumatol. 2020 May;2:286–93. doi:10.1002/acr2.11138.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dills AK, Goffard S, Miron J, Partin E. The effect of state marijuana legalizations: 2021 update. Cato Inst Policy Anal. 2021 Feb. Available from: https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/effect-state-marijuana-legalizations-2021-update [accessed 22 Jan 2024].
   Google Scholar
• Fedorova EV, Schrager SM, Robinson LF, Roth AM, Wong CF, Iverson E, Lankenau SE. Developmental trajectories of illicit drug use, prescription drug misuse and cannabis practices among young adult cannabis users in Los Angeles. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2020;39:743–752. doi:10.1111/dar.13078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar