Recommendations for Therapy following Nerve Transfer for Children with Acute Flaccid Myelitis

References

• Anderson, C. J., Kelly, E. H., Klaas, S. J., Russell, H., Daharsh, E., & Vogel, L. C. (2009). Anxiety and depression in children and adolescents with spinal cord injuries. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 51(10), 826–832. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03268.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashley, Z., Sutherland, H., Lanmüller, H., Russold, M. F., Unger, E., Bijak, M., Mayr, W., Boncompagni, S., Protasi, F., Salmons, S., & Jarvis, J. C. (2007). Atrophy, but not necrosis, in rabbit skeletal muscle denervated for periods up to one year. American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology, 292(1), C440–C451. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00085.2006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bain, J. R., Veltri, K. L., Chamberlain, D., & Fahnestock, M. (2001). Improved functional recovery of denervated skeletal muscle after temporary sensory nerve innervation. Neuroscience, 103(2), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4522(00)00577-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borg, K., Borg, J., Edstrom, L., & Grimby, L. (1988). Effects of excessive use of remaining muscle fibers in prior polio and LV lesion. Muscle & Nerve, 11(12), 1219–1230. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.880111206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borisov, A. B., & Carlson, B. M. (2000). Cell death in denervated skeletal muscle is distinct from classical apoptosis. The Anatomical Record, 258(3), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(20000301)258:3<305::AID-AR10>3.0.CO;2-A
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boyer, F.-C., Tiffreau, V., Rapin, A., Laffont, I., Percebois-Macadré, L., Supper, C., Novella, J.-L., & Yelnik, A.-P. (2010). Post-polio syndrome: Pathophysiological hypotheses, diagnosis criteria, medication therapeutics. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, 53(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2009.12.003
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlson, B. M., Borisov, A. B., Dedkov, E. I., Dow, D., & Kostrominova, T. Y. (2002). The biology and restorative capacity of long-term denervated skeletal muscle. Basic and Applied Myology, 12(6), 247–254.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2019). CDC vital signs: Acute flaccid myelitis. https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/afm/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Chuang, D. C. C. (2005). Nerve transfers in adult brachial plexus injuries: my methods. Hand Clinics, 21(1), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hcl.2004.10.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis, C., Stephens, D., Clarke, H. M., & Andrews, D. (2002). The active movement scale: An evaluative tool for infants with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. The Journal of Hand Surgery, 27(3), 470–478. https://doi.org/10.1053/jhsu.2002.32965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieruf, K., Poole, J. L., Gregory, C., Rodriguez, E. J., & Spizman, C. (2005). Comparative effectiveness of the GivMohr sling in subjects with flaccid upper limbs on subluxation through radiologic analysis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86(12), 2324–2329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2005.07.291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doi, K., Sem, S. H., Hattori, Y., Sakamoto, S., Hayashi, K., & De la Red-Gallego, M. A. (2019). Surgical reconstruction for upper-extremity paralysis following acute flaccid myelitis. JB & JS Open Access, 4(4), e0030. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.OA.19.00030
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Doi, K., Sem, S. H., Hattori, Y., Sakamoto, S., Hayashi, K., & Maruyama, A. (2019). Contralateral obturator nerve to femoral nerve transfer for restoration of knee extension after acute flaccid myelitis: A case report. JBJS Case Connect, 9(4), e0073. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.CC.19.00073
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dua, K., Lancaster, T. P., & Abzug, J. M. (2019). Age-dependent reliability of Semmes-Weinstein and 2-point discrimination tests in children. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 39(2), 98–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elrick, M. J., Gordon-Lipkin, E., Crawford, T. O., Van Haren, K., Messacar, K., Thornton, N., Dee, E., Voskertchian, A., Nance, J. R., Muñoz, L. S., Gorman, M. P., Benson, L. A., Thomas, D. L., Pardo, C. A., Milstone, A. M., & Duggal, P. (2019). Clinical subpopulations in a sample of North American children diagnosed with acute flaccid myelitis, 2012-2016. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(2), 134–139. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.4890
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawcett, J. W., & Keynes, R. J. (1990). Peripheral nerve regeneration. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13(1), 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowler, J. R., Lavasani, M., Huard, J., & Goitz, R. J. (2015). Biologic strategies to improve nerve regeneration after peripheral nerve repair. Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery, 31(4), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1394091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg, R., Merrell, G. A., Hillstrom, H. J., & Wolfe, S. W. (2011). Comparison of nerve transfers and nerve grafting for traumatic upper plexus palsy: a systematic review and analysis. JBJS, 93(9), 819–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giangregorio, L., & McCartney, N. (2006). Bone loss and muscle atrophy in spinal cord injury: Epidemiology, fracture prediction, and rehabilitation strategies. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, 29(5), 489–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/10790268.2006.11753898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gigo-Benato, D., Russo, T. L., Geuna, S., Domingues, N. R. S. R., Salvini, T. F., & Parizotto, N. A. (2010). Electrical stimulation impairs early functional recovery and accentuates skeletal muscle atrophy after sciatic nerve crush injury in rats. Muscle & Nerve, 41(5), 685–693. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.21549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, T. (2015). The biology, limits, and promotion of peripheral nerve regeneration in rats and humans. In Nerves and nerve injuries (pp. 993–1019). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Greninger, A. L., Naccache, S. N., Messacar, K., Clayton, A., Yu, G., Somasekar, S., Federman, S., Stryke, D., Anderson, C., Yagi, S., Messenger, S., Wadford, D., Xia, D., Watt, J. P., Van Haren, K., Dominguez, S. R., Glaser, C., Aldrovandi, G., & Chiu, C. Y. (2015). A novel outbreak enterovirus D68 strain associated with acute flaccid myelitis cases in the USA (2012–14): A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases, 15(6), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(15)70093-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimby, L., Tollbäck, A., Müller, U., & Larsson, L. (1996). Fatigue of chronically overused motor units in prior polio patients. Muscle & Nerve, 19(6), 728–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haley, S. M., Coster, S., Ludlow, L., Haltwinger, J., & Andrellos, P. (1992). Pediatric evaluation of disability inventory (PEDI): Development, standardization and administration manual. New England Center Hospital.
   Google Scholar
• Hogrel, J. Y. (2005). Clinical applications of surface electromyography in neuromuscular disorders. Neurophysiologie Clinique = Clinical Neurophysiology, 35(2-3), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucli.2005.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalifeh, J. M., Dibble, C. F., Van Voorhis, A., Doering, M., Boyer, M. I., Mahan, M. A., Wilson, T. J., Midha, R., Yang, L. J., & W. Z. (2019). Nerve transfers in the upper extremity following cervical spinal cord injury. Part 2: Preliminary results of a prospective clinical trial. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine, 31, 641–653.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim, J. A., & Jones, T. A. (2008). Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: Implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51(1), S225–S239. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2008/018)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konrad, A., Budini, F., & Tilp, M. (2017). Acute effects of constant torque and constant angle stretching on the muscle and tendon tissue properties. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(8), 1649–1656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-017-3654-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langenderfer, J., Jerabek, S. A., Thangamani, V. B., Kuhn, J. E., & Hughes, R. E. (2004). Musculoskeletal parameters of muscles crossing the shoulder and elbow and the effect of sarcomere length sample size on estimation of optimal muscle length. Clinical Biomechanics (Bristol, Avon)), 19(7), 664–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2004.04.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law, M., Petrenchik, T., King, G., & Hurley, P. (2007). Perceived environmental barriers to recreational, community, and school participation for children and youth with physical disabilities. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 88(12), 1636–1642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2007.07.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, J. K., & Robinson, L. R. (2018). Postpolio syndrome and the late effects of poliomyelitis. Part 1. Pathogenesis, biomechanical considerations, diagnosis, and investigations. Muscle & Nerve, 58(6), 751–759. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.26168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett, R. W. (1917). Fatigue and exercise in the treatment of infantile paralysis: A study of one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six cases. Journal of the American Medical Association, LXIX(3), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1917.02590300008004
   Google Scholar
• Maloney, J. A., Mirsky, D. M., Messacar, K., Dominguez, S. R., Schreiner, T., & Stence, N. V. (2015). MRI findings in children with acute flaccid paralysis and cranial nerve dysfunction occurring during the 2014 enterovirus D68 outbreak. AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 36(2), 245–250. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A4188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messacar, K., Asturias, E. J., Hixon, A. M., Van Leer-Buter, C., Niesters, H. G. M., Tyler, K. L., Abzug, M. J., & Dominguez, S. R. (2018). Enterovirus D68 and acute flaccid myelitis-evaluating the evidence for causality. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases, 18(8), e239–e247. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30094-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messacar, K., Sillau, S., Hopkins, S. E., Otten, C., Wilson-Murphy, M., Wong, B., Santoro, J. D., Treister, A., Bains, H. K., Torres, A., & Zabrocki, L. (2019). Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of fluoxetine as an antiviral for acute flaccid myelitis. Neurology, 92(18), e2118–e2126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morens, D. M., Folkers, G. K., & Fauci, A. S. (2019). Acute flaccid myelitis: Something old and something new. mBio, 10(2), e00521–19. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00521-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrey, J., Wang, H., Hurst, B., Zukor, K., Siddharthan, V., Van Wettere, A., Sinex, D., & Tarbet, E. (2018). Causation of acute flaccid paralysis by myelitis and myositis in enterovirus-D68 infected mice deficient in interferon αβ/γ receptor deficient mice. Viruses, 10(1), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/v10010033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Msall, M. E., DiGaudio, K., Duffy, L. C., LaForest, S., Braun, S., & Granger, C. V. (1994). WeeFIM: Normative sample of an instrument for tracking functional independence in children. Clinical Pediatrics, 33(7), 431–438. https://doi.org/10.1177/000992289403300709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulvey, M. R., Fawkner, H. J., Radford, H., & Johnson, M. I. (2009). The use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) to aid perceptual embodiment of prosthetic limbs. Medical Hypotheses, 72(2), 140–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2008.08.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mustoe, T. A., Cooter, R. D., Gold, M. H., Hobbs, F. D. R., Ramelet, A.-A., Shakespeare, P. G., Stella, M., Téot, L., Wood, F. M., & Ziegler, U. E. (2002). International clinical recommendations on scar management. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 110(2), 560–571. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-200208000-00031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakano, J., Yamabayashi, C., Scott, A., & Reid, W. D. (2012). The effect of heat applied with stretch to increase range of motion: A systematic review. Physical Therapy in Sport, 13(3), 180–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptsp.2011.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novak, C. B., & Rebecca, L. (2015). Rehabilitation of the upper extremity following nerve and tendon reconstruction: When and how. Seminars in Plastic Surgery, 29(1), 073–080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novak, I., & Honan, I. (2019). Effectiveness of paediatric occupational therapy for children with disabilities: A systematic review. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 66 (3), 258–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1630.12573
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, M. (2010). Aids to the examination of the peripheral nervous system (5th ed.). Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Okumura, A., Mori, H., Fee Chong, P., Kira, R., Torisu, H., Yasumoto, S., Shimizu, H., Fujimoto, T., Tanaka-Taya, K., & Acute Flaccid Myelitis Collaborative Study Investigators. (2019). Serial MRI findings of acute flaccid myelitis during an outbreak of enterovirus D68 infection in Japan. Brain & Development, 41(5), 443–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2018.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pino, P. A., Intravia, J., Kozin, S. H., & Zlotolow, D. A. (2019). Early results of nerve transfers for restoring function in severe cases of acute flaccid myelitis. Annals of Neurology, 86(4), 607–615. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray, W. Z., Chang, J., Hawasli, A., Wilson, T. J., & Yang, L. (2016). Motor nerve transfers: A comprehensive review. Neurosurgery, 78(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000001029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray, W. Z., & Mackinnon, S. E. (2010). Management of nerve gaps: Autografts, allografts, nerve transfers, and end-to-side neurorrhaphy. Experimental Neurology, 223(1), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.03.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, B. G., Fradet, G., & Nedzelski, J. M. (1996). Development of a sensitive clinical facial grading system. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 114(3), 380–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0194-5998(96)70206-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saltzman, E. B., Rancy, S. K., Sneag, D. B., Feinberg, J. H., Lange, D. J., & Wolfe, S. W. (2018). Nerve transfers for enterovirus D68-associated acute flaccid myelitis: A case series. Pediatric Neurology, 88, 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields, N., & Synnot, A. (2016). Perceived barriers and facilitators to participation in physical activity for children with disability: A qualitative study. BMC Pediatrics, 16(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-016-0544-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B. W., Daunter, A. K., Yang, L. J. S., & Wilson, T. J. (2018). An update on the management of neonatal brachial plexus palsy-replacing old paradigms: A review. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(6), 585–591. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.0124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Socolovsky, M., Malessy, M., Lopez, D., Guedes, F., & Flores, L. (2017). Current concepts in plasticity and nerve transfers: Relationship between surgical techniques and outcomes. Neurosurgical Focus, 42(3), E13. https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.12.FOCUS16431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tam, S. L., & Gordon, T. (2003). Neuromuscular activity impairs axonal sprouting in partially denervated muscles by inhibiting bridge formation of perisynaptic Schwann cells. Journal of Neurobiology, 57(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.1002/neu.10276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, E. L., Werner, J. M., Johnson, M. B., Kim, G., Tiongson, E., Ramos-Platt, L., & Seruya, M. (2021). Characteristics of upper extremity recovery in acute flaccid myelitis: a case series. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 147(2). Advance online publication.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisbrot, D. M., Ettinger, A. B., Gadow, K. D., Belman, A. L., MacAllister, W. S., Milazzo, M., Reed, M. L., Serrano, D., & Krupp, L. B. (2010). Psychiatric comorbidity in pediatric patients with demyelinating disorders. Journal of Child Neurology, 25(2), 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073809338519
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner, J., Weber, E., Johnson, M., Tiongson, E., Ramos-Platt, L., Kim, G., & Seruya, M. (2019, June). Muscle strength outcomes following nerve transfer and motor retraining for upper extremity paralysis caused by acute flaccid myelitis. Poster session presented at the Saban Research Institute Annual Research Day, Los Angeles, CA.
   Google Scholar
• Wiechers, D. O., & Hubbell, S. L. (1981). Late changes in the motor unit after acute poliomyelitis. Muscle & Nerve, 4(6), 524–528. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.880040610
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodmansee, C., Hahne, A., Imms, C., & Shields, N. (2016). Comparing participation in physical recreation activities between children with disability and children with typical development: A secondary analysis of matched data. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 49, 268–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yea, C., Bitnun, A., Robinson, J., Mineyko, A., Barton, M., Mah, J. K., Vajsar, J., Richardson, S., Licht, C., Brophy, J., Crone, M., Desai, S., Hukin, J., Jones, K., Muir, K., Pernica, J. M., Pless, R., Pohl, D., Rafay, M. F., … Yeh, E. A. (2017). Longitudinal outcomes in the 2014 acute flaccid paralysis cluster in Canada: A nationwide study. Journal of Child Neurology, 32(3), 301–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073816680770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar