2,037
Views
141
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW ARTICLE

Carcinoid
A Comprehensive Review

, &
Pages 672-692 | Received 05 Sep 2002, Accepted 10 Apr 2003, Published online: 08 Jul 2009

References

  • Lubarsh O. Uber den pimaeren krebs des ileum nebst Bemerkungen ueber das gleichzeitige Vorkommen von krebs und Tuberculos. Virchows Arch 1888; 11: 280–317.
  • Ranson WB. Case of primary carcinoma of ileum. Lancet 1890; 2: 1020.
  • Obendorfer S. Karzinoide Rumoren des Dunndarms. Frankf Z Pathol 1907; 1: 425–9.
  • Masson P. Carcinoids (argentaffin-cell tumors) and nerve hyperplasia of appendicular mucosa. Am J Pathol 1928; 4: 181–212.
  • Gerstle JT, Kauffman Jr. GL, Koltun WA. The incidence, management, and outcome of patients with gastrointestinal carcinoids and second primary malignancies. J Am Coll Surg 1995; 180: 427–32.
  • Lembech F. 5-hydroxytryptamine in carcinoid tumor. Nature 1953; 172: 910–1.
  • Page I, Corcoran A, Vollenfrend S. Argentaffinoma as an endocrine tumor. Lancet 1955; 1: 198–9.
  • Modlin IM, Sandor A. An analysis of 8 305 cases of carcinoid tumors. Cancer 1997; 79: 813–29.
  • Woods HF, Bax ND, Ainsworth I. Abdominal carcinoid tumours in Sheffield. Digestion 1990; 45(Suppl 1): 17–22.
  • Newton JN, Swerdlow AJ, dos Santos Silva IM, et al. The epidemiology of carcinoid tumours in England and Scotland. Br J Cancer 1994; 70: 939–42.
  • Lu Cortez L, Clemente C, Puig V, Mirada A. Carcinoid tumor. An analysis of 131 cases. Rev Clin Esp 1994; 194: 291–3.
  • Soga J. Carcinoids of the rectum: An evaluation of 1 271 reported cases. Surg Today 1997; 27: 112–9.
  • Soga J. Carcinoids of the small intestine: A statistical evaluation of 1 102 cases collected from the literature. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 1997; 16: 353–63.
  • Moertel CG, Sauer WG, Docherty MB, Baggenstoss AH. Life history of the carcinoid tumor of the small intestine. Cancer 1961; 14: 291–3.
  • Berge T, Linell F. Carcinoid tumours. Frequency in a defined population during a 12-year period. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand [A] 1976; 84: 322–30.
  • Neary PC, Redmond PH, Houghton T, Watson GR, Bouch-ier-Hayes D. Carcinoid disease: review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum 1997; 40: 349–62.
  • Moertel CG. Kamofsky memorial lecture. An odyssey in the land of small tumors. J Clin Oncol 1987; 5: 1502–22.
  • Jensen R, Norton J. Carcinoid tumors and the carcinoid syndrome. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg A, eds. Principles and practice of oncology, 5th ed.. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott Co; 1996. p. 1704–23.
  • Scully R, Eugene M, McNeely W, Ebeling S, Phillips L. Case 9-1997. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 861–7.
  • Nilsson O. Gastrointestinal carcinoids-aspects of diagnosis and classification. APMIS 1996; 104: 481–92.
  • Solcia E, Bordi C, Creutzfeldt W, et al. Histopathological classification of nonantral gastric endocrine growths in man. Digestion 1988; 41: 185–200.
  • Ahlman H. Gut neuroendocrine tumours. Wiad Lek 1997; 50((Suppl Pt 1)): 4–9.
  • Kulke MH, Mayer RJ. Carcinoid tumors. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 858–68.
  • Modlin IM, Sandor A, Tang LH, Kidd M, Zelterman D. A 40-year analysis of 265 gastric carcinoids. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 633–8.
  • Modlin IM, Tang LH. The gastric enterochromaffin-like cell: an enigmatic cellular link. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 783–810.
  • Rindi G, Luinetti O, Comaggia M, Capella C, Solcia E. Three subtypes of gastric argyrophil carcinoid and the gastric neuroendocrine carcinoma: a clinicopathologic study. Gastro-enterology 1993; 104: 994–1006.
  • Thomas RM, Baybick JH, Elsayed AM, Sobin LH. Gastric carcinoids. An immunohistochemical and clinicopathologic study of 104 patients. Cancer 1994; 73: 2053–8.
  • Gough DB, Thompson GB, Crotty TB, et al. Diverse clinical and pathologic features of gastric carcinoid and the relevance of hypergastrinemia. World J Surg 1994; 18: 473–9 (discus-sion 479-80).
  • Moertel CG, Hanley JA. Combination chemotherapy trials in metastatic carcinoid tumor and the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Cancer Clin Trials 1979; 2: 327–34.
  • Sundler F. Pathogenesis and diagnosis of enterochromaffin-like cell tumors. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994; 733: 24–35.
  • Moertel CG. Treatment of the carcinoid tumor and the malignant carcinoid syndrome. J Clin Oncol 1983; 1: 727–40.
  • Feldman JM. Carcinoid tumors and the carcinoid syndrome. CUff Probl Surg 1989; 26: 835–85.
  • Strodel WE, Talpos G, Eckhauser F, Thompson N. Surgical therapy for small-bowel carcinoid tumors. Arch Surg 1983; 118: 391–7.
  • Rivadeneira DE, Tuckson WB, Naab T. Increased incidence of second primary malignancy in patients with carcinoid tumors: case report and literature review. J Natl Med Assoc 1996; 88: 310–2.
  • Brown NK, Smith MR Neoplastic diathesis of patients with carcinoid. Report of a case with four other neoplasms. Cancer 1973; 32: 216–22.
  • Jetmore AB, Ray JE, Gathright JBJ, McMullen KM, Hicks TC, Timmcke AE. Rectal carcinoids: The most frequent carcinoid tumor. Dis Colon Rectum 1992; 35: 717–25.
  • Dusmet ME, McKneally MF. Pulmonary and thymic carci-noid tumors. World J Surg 1996; 20: 189–95.
  • Harpole DHJ, Feldman JM, Buchanan S, Young WG, Wolfe WG. Bronchial carcinoid tumors: a retrospective analysis of 126 patients. Ann Thorac Surg 1992; 54: 50–4 (discussion 54-5).
  • Dusmet M, McKneally MF. Bronchial and thymic carcinoid tumors: a review Digestion 1994; 55(Suppl 3): 70–6.
  • Froudarakis M, Foumel P, Burgard G, et al. Bronchial carcinoids. A review of 22 cases. Oncology 1996; 53: 153–8.
  • Limper AH, Carpenter PC, Scheithauer B, Staats BA. The Cushing syndrome induced by bronchial carcinoid tumors. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 209–14.
  • Wajchenberg B, Mendonca B, Liberman B, et al. Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone syndrome. Endocr Rev 1995; 15: 752–87.
  • Chughtai TS, Morin JE, Sheiner NM, Wilson JA, Mulder DS. Bronchial carcinoid-twenty years' experience defines a selective surgical approach. Surgery 1997; 122: 801–8.
  • Shigeta H, Taga M, Kurogi K, Kitamura H, Motoyama T, Gorai I. Ovarian stromal carcinoid with severe constipation: immunohistochemical and mRNA analyses of peptide YY. Hum Pathol 1999; 30: 242–6.
  • Feyrter F. Ober diffuse endokrine epitheliale organe. Leipzig: J. A. Barth; 1938.
  • Creutzfeldt W. Carcinoid tumors: development of our knowl-edge. World J Surg 1996; 20: 126–31.
  • Zeitels J, Naunheim K, Kaplan EL, Straus Fd. Carcinoid tumors: a 37-year experience. Arch Surg 1982; 117: 732–7.
  • Pearse AGE. The cytochemistry and ultrastructure of poly-peptide hormone producing cells of the APUD series and the embyrologic, physiologic, and pathologic implications of the concept. J Histochem Cytochem 1969; 17: 303–13.
  • Creutzfeldt W Historical background and natural history of carcinoids. Digestion 1994; 55\(Suppl 3): 3–10.
  • Kloppel G, Heitz P. Classification of normal and neoplastic neuroendocrine cells. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994; 733: 18–23.
  • Wilander E. Diagnostic pathology of gastrointestinal and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Acta Oncol 1989; 28: 363–9.
  • Caplin ME, Buscombe JR, Hilson AJ, Jones AL, Watkinson AF, Burroughs AK. Carcinoid tumour. Lancet 1998; 352(9130): 799–805.
  • Bender DA. Biochemistry of tryptophan in health and disease. Mol Aspects Med 1983; 6: 101–97.
  • Siu LL, Chapman W, Moore MJ. Use of the somatostatin analogue octreotide acetate in the treatment of encephalo-pathy associated with carcinoid tumor. Case report. Am J Clin Oncol 1997; 20: 558–61.
  • Norton JA. Surgical management of carcinoid tumors: role of debulking and surgery for patients with advanced disease. Digestion 1994; 55(Suppl 3): 98–103.
  • Vinik Al, Thompson N, Eckhauser F, Moattari AR. Clinical features of carcinoid syndrome and the use of somatostatin analogue in its management. Acta Oncol 1989; 28: 389–402.
  • Davis Z, Moertel CG, McIlrath DC. The malignant carcinoid syndrome. JAM Coll Surg 1973; 137: 637–44.
  • Grahame-Smith D. The carcinoid syndrome. London: Wil-liam Heineman Medical Books; 1972.
  • Creutzfeldt W, Stockmann F. Carcinoids and carcinoid syndrome. Am J Med 1987; 82: 4–16.
  • Richter G, Stockmann F, Conlon JM, Creutzfeldt W Ser-otonin release into blood after food and pentagastrin. Studies in healthy subjects and in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumors. Gastroenterology 1986; 91: 612–8.
  • Lucas KJ, Feldman JM. Flushing in the carcinoid syndrome and plasma kallikrein. Cancer 1986; 58: 2290–3.
  • Memon MA, Nelson H. Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors: current management strategies. Dis Colon Rectum 1997; 40: 1101–18.
  • Vinik Al, McLeod MK, Fig LM, Shapiro B, Lloyd RV, Cho K. Clinical features, diagnosis, and localization of carcinoid tumors and their management. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1989; 18: 865–96.
  • Peart W, Robertson JI. The effect of serotonin antagonist (UML 491) in carcinoid disease. Lancet 1961; 2: 1172–4.
  • Pellikka PA, Tajik AJ, Khandheria BK, et al. Carcinoid heart disease. Clinical and echocardiographic spectrum in 74 patients. Circulation 1993; 87: 1188–96.
  • Robiolio PA, Rigolin VH, Wilson JS, et al. Carcinoid heart disease. Correlation of high serotonin levels with valvular abnormalities detected by cardiac catheterization and echo-cardiography. Circulation 1995; 92: 790–5.
  • Connolly HM, Crary JL, McGoon MD, et al. Valvular heart disease associated with fenfluramine-phentermine [published erratum appears in N Engl J Med 1997 Dec 11; 337: 1783]. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 581–8.
  • Basson MD, Ahlman H, Wangberg B, Modlin IM. Biology and management of the midgut carcinoid. Am J Surg 1993; 165: 288–97.
  • Zirbes TK, Lorenzen J, Baldus SE, et al. Apoptosis and expression of bc1-2 protein are inverse factors influencing tumour cell turnover in primary carcinoid tumours of the lung. Histopathology 1998; 33: 123–8.
  • Przygodzki RM, Finkelstein SD, Langer JC, et al. Analysis of p53, K-ras-2, and C-raf-1 in pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors. Correlation with histological subtype and clinical outcome. Am J Pathol 1996; 148: 1531–41.
  • Dong Q, Debelenko LV, Chandrasekharappa SC, Emmert-Buck MR, Zhuang Z, Guru SC, et al. Loss of heterozygosity at 11q13: analysis of pituitary tumors, lung carcinoids, lipomas, and other uncommon tumors in subjects with familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. J Clin Endocri-nol Metab 1997; 82(5): 1416–20.
  • Debelenko LV, Brambilla E, Agarwal SK, et al. Identification of MEN1 gene mutations in sporadic carcinoid tumors of the lung. Hum Mol Genet 1997; 6: 2285–90.
  • Brambilla E, Negoescu A, Gazzeri S, et al. Apoptosis-related factors p53, Bc12, and bax in neuroendocrine lung tumors. Am J Pathol 1996; 149: 1941–52.
  • Wermer P. Genetic aspects of adenomatosis of endocrine glands. Am J Med 1954; 16: 363–71.
  • Sagara M, Sugiyama F, Horiguchi H, et al. Activation of the nuclear oncogenes N-myc and c-jun in carcinoid tumors of transgenic mice carrying the human adenovirus type 12 El region gene. DNA Cell Biol 1995; 14: 95–101.
  • Cheng JY, Sheu LF, Meng CL, Lin JC. Expression of p53 protein in colorectal carcinoids. Arch Surg 1996; 131: 67–70.
  • Coppola D, Clarke M, Landreneau R, Weyant RJ, Cooper D, Yousem SA. Bc1-2, p53, CD44, and CD44v6 isoform expres-sion in neuroendocrine tumors of the lung. Mod Pathol 1996; 9: 484–90.
  • Brandi ML, Marz SJ, Aurbach GD, Fitzpatrick LA. Familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1: A new look at patho-physiology. Endocr Rev 1987; 8: 391–405.
  • Jakobovitz O, Devora N, DeMarco L, et al. Carcinoid tumors frequently display genetic abnormalities involving chromo-some 11. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 3164–7.
  • Bysrom C, Larsson C, Blomberg C, et al. Localization of the gene for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 to a small region within chromosome 11q13 by deletion mapping in tumor tissue. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 1968–72.
  • Friedman E, Sakaguchi K, Bale A. Clonality of parathyroid tumors in familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 213–8.
  • Friedman E, DeMarco L, Gejman P. Allelic loss from chromosome 11 in parathyroid tumors. Cancer Res 1989; 52: 6804–9.
  • Walch AK, Zitzelsberger HF, Aubele MM, et al. Typical and atypical carcinoid tumors of the lung are characterized by 1 lq deletions as detected by comparative genomic hybridization. Am J Pathol 1998; 153: 1089–98.
  • Perkins P, Lee JR, Kemp BL, Cox JD. Carcinoid tumors of the lung and family history of cancer. J Clin Epidemiol 1997; 50: 705–9.
  • Kovatich A, Friedland DM, Druck T, et al. Molecular alterations to human chromosome 3p loci in neuroendocrine lung tumors. Cancer 1998; 83: 1109–17.
  • Onuki N, Wistuba I, Travis WD, et al. Genetic changes in the spectrum of neuroendocrine lung tumors. Cancer 1999; 85: 600–7.
  • Azzoni C, Doglioni C, Viale G, et al. Involvement of BCL-2 oncoprotein in the development of enterochromaffin like cell gastric carcinoids. Am J Surg Pathol 1996; 20: 433–41.
  • Rindi G. Characterisation of neuroendocrine tumors in transgenic mice. Digestion 1994; 55: 24–30.
  • Modlin IM, Lawton GP, Tang LH, Geibel J, Abraham R, Darr U. The Mastomys gastric carcinoid: aspects of enter-ochromaffin-like cell function. Digestion 1994; 55(Suppl 3): 31–7.
  • Nilsson O, Bilchik AI Adrian TE, Modlin IM. Intra-ocular transplantation of carcinoid tumours from Mastomys and humans. J Pathol 1990; 160: 347–56.
  • Suyama M, Saito T, Hara K, Kito H, Hosoda S. Production of serotonin by a transplantable strain of histamine producing primary gastric carcinoid of Mastomys natalensis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1984; 72: 751–7.
  • Chaudhry A, Funa K, Oberg K. Expression of growth factor peptides and their receptors in neuroendocrine tumors of the digestive system. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 107–14.
  • Beauchamp RD, Coffey Jr. RI Lyons RM, Perkett EA, Townsend Jr. CM, Moses HL. Human carcinoid cell produc-tion of paracrine growth factors that can stimulate fibroblast and endothelial cell growth. Cancer Res 1991; 51: 5253–60.
  • Terris B, Scoazec JY, Rubbia L, et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in digestive neuroendocrine tu-mours. Histopathology 1998; 32: 133–8.
  • Ambs S, Bennett WP, Merriam WG, et al. Vascular endothe-lial growth factor and nitric oxide synthase expression in human lung cancer and the relation to p53. Br J Cancer 1998; 78: 233–9.
  • Chaudhry A, Oberg K, Gobl A, Heldin CH, Funa K. Expression of transforming growth factors beta 1, beta 2, beta 3 in neuroendocrine tumors of the digestive system. Anticancer Res 1994; 14: 2085–91.
  • Nilsson O, Wangberg B, Kolby L, Schultz GS, Ahlman H. Expression of transforming growth factor alpha and its receptor in human neuroendocrine tumours. Int J Cancer 1995; 60: 645–51.
  • Krishnamurthy S, Dayal Y. Immunohistochemical expression of transforming growth factor alpha and epidermal growth factor receptor in gastrointestinal carcinoids. Am J Surg Pathol 1997; 21: 327–33.
  • Facco C, La Rosa S, Dionigi A, Uccella S, Riva C, Capella C. High expression of growth factors and growth factor receptors in ovarian metastases from ileal carcinoids: an immunohisto-chemical study of 2 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1998; 122: 828–32.
  • Nilsson O, Wangberg B, McRae A, Dahlstrom A, Ahlman H. Growth factors and carcinoid tumours. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 115–24.
  • Funa K, Papanicolaou V, Juhlin C, et al. Expression of platelet-derived growth factor beta-receptors on stromal tissue cells in human carcinoid tumors. Cancer Res 1990; 50: 748–53.
  • Williams E, Sanders M. The classification of carcinoid tumors. Lancet 1963; 1: 238–9.
  • Zeiger MA, Swartz SE, MacGillivray DC, Linnoila I, Shakir M. Thymic carcinoid in association with MEN syndromes. Am Surg 1992; 58: 430–4.
  • Burcharth F, Axelsson C. Lung carcinoids. Scand Cardiovasc J 1973; 7: 72–7.
  • Goldman NC, Hood CI, Singleton GT. Carcinoid of the larynx. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1969; 90: 64–7.
  • Robboy SJ. Insular carcinoid of ovary associated with malignant mucinous tumors. Cancer 1984; 54: 2273–6.
  • Yalla SV, Yalla SS, Morgan JW, Eberhart CA, O11ey JF. Primary argentaffinoma of the testis: a case report and survey of the literature. J Urol 1974; 111: 50–2.
  • Sylora HO, Diamond HM, Kaufman M, Straus FD, Lyon ES. Primary carcinoid tumor of the urethra. J Urol 1975; 114: 150–3.
  • Hughes JP, Ancalmo N, Leonard GL, Ochsner JL. Carcinoid tumour of the thymus gland: report of a case. Thorax 1975; 30: 470–5.
  • Porter JM, Kalloo AN, Abernathy EC, Yeo CJ. Carcinoid tumor of the gallbladder: laparoscopic resection and review of the literature. Surgery 1992; 112: 100–5.
  • Kloppel G, Heitz PU, Capella C, Solcia E. Pathology and nomenclature of human gastrointestinal neuroendocrine (car-cinoid) tumors and related lesions. World J Surg 1996; 20: 132–41.
  • Capella C, Heitz PU, Hofler H, Solcia E, Kloppel G. Revised classification of neuroendocrine tumors of the lung, pancreas and gut. Digestion 1994; 55(Suppl 3): 11–23.
  • Soga J, Tazawa K. Pathologic analysis of carcinoids. Histo-logic reevaluation of 62 cases. Cancer 1971; 28: 990–8.
  • Soga J, Suzuki T. Carcinoids and the carcinoid syndrome. Nippon Rinsho 1993; 51 (Suppl): 207–21.
  • Gosset A, Masson P. Tumeurs endocrine de l'appendice. Presse Med 1914; 22: 237.
  • Martin RG. Management of carcinoid tumors. Cancer 1970; 26: 547–51.
  • Thompson GB, van Heerden JA, Martin Jr. JK, Schutt AI Ilstrup DM, Carney JA. Carcinoid tumors of the gastro-intestinal tract: presentation, management, and prognosis. Surgery 1985; 98: 1054–63.
  • Tormey WP, FitzGerald RI The clinical and laboratory correlates of an increased urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Postgrad Med J 1995; 71: 542–5.
  • Feldman J, Lee E. Serotonin content of foods: effect on urinary excretion of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 42: 639–43.
  • Stridsberg M, Oberg K, Li Q, Engstrom U, Lundqvist G. Measurements of chromogranin A, chromogranin B (secreto-granin I), chromogranin C (secretogranin II) and pancreast-atin in plasma and urine from patients with carcinoid tumours and endocrine pancreatic tumours. J Endocrinol 1995; 144: 49–59.
  • Eriksson B. Tumor markers for pancreatic endocrine tumors, including chromogranins, HCG-alpha and HCG-beta. In: Mignon M, Jensen R, eds. Endocrine tumors of the pancreas: recent advances in research and management. Basel: S Karger; 1995. p. 121.
  • Eriksson B, Oberg K. Peptide hormones as tumor markers in neuroendocrine gastrointestinal tumors. Acta Oncol 1991; 30: 477–83.
  • Norheim I, Oberg K, Theodorsson-Norheim E, et al. Malignant carcinoid tumors. An analysis of 103 patients with regard to tumor localization, hormone production, and survival. Ann Surg 1987; 206: 115–25.
  • Maton P, Hodgson HJF. Textbook of gastroenterology. London: Bailliere-Tindall; 1984.
  • Krenning EP, Kooij PPM, Bakker WH, et al. Radiotherapy with a radiolabeled somatostatin analogue, [111In-DTPA-D-Phel]-octreotide. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994; 733: 496–506.
  • Westlin JE, Janson ET, Arnberg H, Ahlstrom H, Oberg K, Nilsson S. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy of carcinoid tumours using the [111In-DTPA-D-Phel]-octreotide. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 783–6.
  • Shi W, Johnston CF, Buchanan KD, et al. Localization of neuroendocrine tumours with [111In] DTPA-octreotide scin-tigraphy (Octreoscan): a comparative study with CT and MR imaging. QJM 1998; 91: 295–301.
  • Eriksson B, Bergstrom M, Lilja A, Ahlstrom H, Langstrom B, Oberg K. Positron emission tomography (PET) in neuro-endocrine gastrointestinal tumors. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 189–96.
  • Rege SD, Hoh CK, Glaspy JA, et al. Imaging of pulmonary mass lesions with whole-body positron emission tomography and fluorodeoxyglucose. Cancer 1993; 72: 82–90.
  • Warburg O. The metabolism of tumors. New York: Smoth; 1931.
  • Weber G. Differential carbohydrate metabolism in tumor and host. In: Arnott M, Van Eys J, Wang J, eds. Molecular interrelations of nutrition and cancer. New York: Raven Press; 1981. p. 167–81.
  • Jadvar H, Segall GM. False-negative fluorine-18-FDG PET in metastatic carcinoid. J Nucl Med 1997; 38: 1382–3.
  • Eriksson B, Bergstrom M, Sundin A, et al. The role of PET in localization of neuroendocrine and adrenocortical tumors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002; 970: 159–69.
  • Adams S, Baum RP, Hertel A, Schumm-Drager PM, Usadel KH, Hor G. Metabolic (PET) and receptor (SPET) imaging of well- and less well-differentiated tumours: comparison with the expression of the Ki-67 antigen. Nucl Med Commun 1998; 19: 641–7.
  • Adams S, Baum R, Rink T, Schumm-Drager PM, Usadel KH, Hor G. Limited value of fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for the imaging of neuroendo-crine tumours. Eur Nucl Med 1998; 25(1): 79–83.
  • Hanson MW, Feldman JM, Blinder RA, Moore JO, Coleman RE. Carcinoid tumors: Iodine-131 MIBG scintigraphy. Radi-ology 1989; 172: 699–703.
  • Anthony LB, Martin W, Delbeke D, Sandler M. Somatostatin receptor imaging: predictive and prognostic considerations. Digestion 1996; 57(Suppl 1): 50–3.
  • Loftus JP, van Heerden JA. Surgical management of gastro-intestinal carcinoid tumors. Adv Surg 1995; 28: 317–36.
  • Rothmund M, Kisker O. Surgical treatment of carcinoid tumors of the small bowel, appendix, colon and rectum. Digestion 1994; 55(Suppl 3): 86–91.
  • Stinner B, Kisker O, Zielke A, Rothmund M. Surgical management for carcinoid tumors of small bowel, appendix, colon, and rectum. World J Surg 1996; 20: 183–8.
  • Marty-Ane CH, Costes V, Pujol JL, Alauzen M, Baldet P, Mary H. Carcinoid tumors of the lung: do atypical features require aggressive management? Ann Thorac Surg 1995; 59: 78–83.
  • Okike N, Bernatz PE, Payne WS, Woolner LB, Leonard PF. Bronchoplastic procedures in the treatment of carcinoid tumors of the tracheobronchial tree. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1978; 76: 281–91.
  • Vadasz P, Palffy G, Egervary M, Schaff Z. Diagnosis and treatment of bronchial carcinoid tumors: clinical and patho-logical review of 120 operated patients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1993; 7: 8–11.
  • Fraser RG, Pare J, Pare PD, Fraser RS, Genereux GE Neoplastic diseases of the lungs (neoplasms of pulmonary neuroendocrine cells). In: Fraser RG, ed. Diagnosis of diseases of the chest, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1989. p. 1476–94.
  • Peplinski GR, Norton JA. Gastrointestinal endocrine cancers and nodal metastasis: Biologic significance and therapeutic implications. Surg Oncol Clin North Am 1996; 5: 159–71.
  • Stuart RC. Primary gastric carcinoids. Br J Surg 1991; 78: 122–3.
  • Davies MG, O'Dowd G, McEntee GP, Hennessy TP. Primary gastric carcinoids: a view on management. Br J Surg 1990; 77: 1013–4.
  • Akerstrom G, Makridis C, Johansson H. Abdominal surgery in patients with midgut carcinoid tumors. Acta Oncol 1991; 30: 547–53.
  • Moertel CG, Weiland LH, Nagorney DM, Dockerty MB. Carcinoid tumor of the appendix: treatment and prognosis. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 1699–701.
  • Reichlin S. Somatostatin. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 1495–501.
  • Reichlin S. Somatostatin. Part II. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 1556–63.
  • Lamberts S, Krenning E, Reubi J. The role of somatostatin and its analogs in the diagnosis and treatment of tumors. Endocr Rev 1991; 12: 450–82.
  • Bruns C, Weckbecker G, Raulf F, et al. Molecular pharma-cology of somatostatin-receptor subtypes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 138–46.
  • Lambert P, Minghini A, Pincus W, Kolm P, Perry RR. Treatment and prognosis of primary malignant small bowel tumors. Am Surg 1996; 62: 709–15.
  • Lamberts S, Uitterlinden P, Verschoor L, van Dongen K, del Pozo E. Long term treatment of acromegaly with the somatosatin analogue SMS201-995. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1576–80.
  • Schally A. Oncological applications of somatostatin analogue. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 6977–85.
  • Hillman N, Herranz L, Alvarez C, Martinez Olmos MA, Marco A, Gomez-Pan A. Efficacy of octreotide in the regression of a metastatic carcinoid tumour despite negative imaging with In-111-pentetreotide (Octreoscan). Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1998; 106: 226–30.
  • Kvols LK, Moertel CG, O'Connell MJ, Schutt AJ, Rubin J, Hahn RG. Treatment of the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Evaluation of a long-acting somatostatin analogue. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 663–6.
  • Oberg K. Treatment of neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer Treat Rev 1994; 20: 331–55.
  • Frolich JC, Bloomgarden ZT, Oates JA, McGuigan JE, Rabinowitz D. The carcinoid flush. Provocation by pentagas-trin and inhibition by somatostatin. N Engl J Med 1978; 299: 1055–7.
  • Dharmsathaphorn K, Sherwin RS, Cataland S, Jaffe B, Dobbins J. Somatostatin inhibits diarrhea in the carcinoid syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 68–9.
  • Vinik A, Moattari AR. Use of somatostatin analog in management of carcinoid syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34\(Suppl 3): 14S–27.
  • Oberg K, Norheim I, Theodorsson E. Treatment of malignant midgut carcinoid tumours with a long-acting somatostatin analogue octreotide. Acta Oncol 1991; 30: 503–7.
  • Wangberg B, Nilsson O, Theodorsson E, Dahlstrom A, Ahlman H. The effect of a somatostatin analogue on the release of hormones from human midgut carcinoid tumour cells. Br J Cancer 1991; 64: 23–8.
  • Tomassetti P, Migliori M, Gullo L. Slow-release lanreotide treatment in endocrine gastrointestinal tumors. Am J Gastro-enterol 1998; 93: 1468–71.
  • Rubin J, Ajani J, Schirmer W, et al. Octreotide acetate long-acting formulation versus open-label subcutaneous octreotide acetate in malignant carcinoid syndrome. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 600–6.
  • Kvols L, Moertel C, Schutt A, Rubin J. Treatment of the malignant carcinoid syndrome with a long-acting somatosta-tin analogue (SMS 201-955): preliminary evidence that more is not better (abstract). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1987; 6: 95.
  • Saltz L, Trochanowski B, Buckley M, et al. Octreotide as an antineoplastic agent in the treatment of functional and nonfunctional neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer 1993; 72: 244–8.
  • Janson EM, Ahlstrom H, Andersson T, Oberg KE. Octreotide and interferon alfa: a new combination for the treatment of malignant carcinoid tumours. Eur J Cancer 1992; 10: 1647–50.
  • Janson ET, Oberg K. Long-term management of the carcinoid syndrome. Treatment with octreotide alone and in combina-tion with alpha-interferon. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 225–9.
  • Arnold R, Trautmann ME, Creutzfeldt W, et al. Somatostatin analogue octreotide and inhibition of tumour growth in metastatic endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumours. Gut 1996; 38: 430–8.
  • Creutzfeldt W, Bartsch HH, Jacubaschke U, Stockmann F. Treatment of gastrointestinal endocrine tumours with inter-feron-alpha and octreotide. Acta Oncol 1991; 30: 529–35.
  • Hanssen LE, Schrumpf E, Kolbenstvedt AN, Tausjo J, Dolva LO. Treatment of malignant metastatic midgut carcinoid tumours with recombinant human alpha2b interferon with or without prior hepatic artery embolization. Scand J Gastroenterol 1989; 24: 787–95.
  • Oberg K. Chemotherapy and biotherapy in neuroendocrine tumors. Curr Opin Oncol 1993; 5: 110–20.
  • Valimaki M, Jarvinen H, Salmela P, Sane T, Sjoblom SM, Pelkonen R. Is the treatment of metastatic carcinoid tumor with interferon not as successful as suggested? Cancer 1991; 67: 547–9.
  • Oberg K, Norheim I, Lind E, et al. Treatment of malignant carcinoid tumors with human leukocyte interferon: long-term results. Cancer Treat Rep 1986; 70: 1297–304.
  • Nobin A, Lindblom A, Mansson B, Sundberg M. Interferon treatment in patients with malignant carcinoids. Acta Oncol 1989; 28: 445–9.
  • Oberg K, Norheim I, Alm G. Treatment of malignant carcinoid tumors: a randomized controlled study of strepto-zocin plus 5-FU and human leukocyte interferon. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1989; 25: 1475–9.
  • Oberg K, Eriksson B, Janson ET. The clinical use of interferons in the management of neuroendocrine gastroen-teropancreatic tumors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 471–8.
  • Moertel CG, Rubin J, Kvols LK. Therapy of metastatic carcinoid tumor and the malignant carcinoid syndrome with recombinant leukocyte A interferon. J Clin Oncol 1989; 7: 865–8.
  • Oberg K, Alm G, Magnusson A, et al. Treatment of malignant carcinoid tumors with recombinant interferon alfa-2b: devel-opment of neutralizing interferon antibodies and possible loss of antitumor activity. J Natl Cancer Inst 1989; 81: 531–5.
  • Bartsch HH, Stockmann F, Arnold R, Creutzfeldt W Treat-ment of patients with metastatic carcinoid tumors by recom-binant human interferon-alpha-results from a phase II study (abstract). J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1990; 116 (Suppl): 305.
  • Oberg K, Eriksson B. The role of interferons in the manage-ment of carcinoid tumors. Acta Oncol 1991; 30: 519–22.
  • Schober C, Schmoll E, Schmoll HJ, et al. Antitumour effect and symptomatic control with interferon alpha 2b in patients with endocrine active tumours. Eur J Cancer 1992; 10: 1664–6.
  • Joensuu H, Kumpulainen E, Grohn P. Treatment of metastatic carcinoid tumour with recombinant interferon alfa. Eur J Cancer 1992; 10: 1650–3.
  • Janson ET, Ronnblom L, Ahlstrom H, et al. Treatment with alpha-interferon versus alpha-interferon in combination with streptozocin and doxorubicin in patients with malignant carcinoid tumors: a randomized trial. Ann Oncol 1992; 3: 635–8.
  • Bajetta E, Zilembo N, Di Bartolomeo M, et al. Treatment of metastatic carcinoids and other neuroendocrine tumors with recombinant interferon-alpha-2a. A study by the Italian Trials in Medical Oncology Group. Cancer 1993; 72: 3099–105.
  • Di Bartolomeo M, Bajetta E, Zilembo N, et al. Treatment of carcinoid syndrome with recombinant interferon alpha-2a [published erratum appears in Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 592]. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 235–8.
  • Jacobsen MB, Hanssen LE, Kolmannskog F, Schrumpf E, Vatn MH, Bergan A. Interferon-alpha 2b, with or without prior hepatic artery embolization: clinical response and survival in mid-gut carcinoid patients. The Norwegian carci-noid study. Scand J Gastroenterol 1995; 30: 789–96.
  • Frank M, Klose KJ, Wied M, Ishaque N, Schade-Brittinger C, Arnold R. Combination therapy with octreotide and alpha-interferon: effect on tumor growth in metastatic endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 1381–7.
  • Stathopoulos GP, Karvountzis GG, Yiotis J. Tamoxifen in carcinoid syndrome. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 52.
  • Myers CF, Ershler WB, Tannenbaum MA, Barth R. Tamox-ifen and carcinoid tumor. Ann Intern Med 1982; 96: 383.
  • Moertel CG, Engstrom PF, Schutt AJ. Tamoxifen therapy for metastatic carcinoid tumor: a negative study. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100: 531–2.
  • Moertel CG, Martin JK, O'Connell MJ, et al. Phase II trials in the malignant carcinoid tumor and the carcinoid syndrome. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1982; 2: 169.
  • Engstrom PF, Lavin PT, Moertel CG, Folsch E, Douglass Jr. HO. Streptozocin plus fluorouracil versus doxorubicin ther-apy for metastatic carcinoid tumor. J Clin Oncol 1984; 2: 1255–9.
  • Oberg K, Norheim I, Lundqvist G, Wide L. Cytotoxic treatment in patients with malignant carcinoid tumors. Response to streptozocin-alone or in combination with 5-FU. Acta Oncol 1987; 26: 429–32.
  • Saltz L, Kemeny N, Schwartz G, Kelsen D. A phase II trial of alpha-interferon and 5-fluorouracil in patients with advanced carcinoid and islet cell tumors. Cancer 1994; 74: 958–61.
  • Ajani J, Humberto C, Wallace S. Neuroendocrine tumors metastatic to the liver: vascular occlusion therapy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 479–87.
  • Nobin A, Mansson B, Lunderquist A. Evaluation of tempor-ary liver dearterialization and embolization in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumour. Acta Oncol 1989; 28: 419–24.
  • Chuang VP, Soo CS, Carrasco CH, et al. Superselective catheterization technique in hepatic angiography. Am J Radiol 1983; 141: 803–11.
  • Diaco DS, Hajarizadeh H, Mueller CR, Fletcher WS, Pommier RF, Woltering EA. Treatment of metastatic carci-noid tumors using multimodality therapy of octreotide acetate, intra-arterial chemotherapy, and hepatic arterial chemoembolization. Am J Surg 1995; 169: 523–8.
  • Carrasco CH, Charnsangavej C, Ajani J, Samaan NA, Richli W, Wallace S. The carcinoid syndrome: palliation by hepatic artery embolization. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1986; 147: 149–54.
  • Eriksson BK, Larsson EG, Skogseid BM, Lofberg AM, Lorelius LE, Oberg KE. Liver embolizations of patients with malignant neuroendocrine gastrointestinal tumors. Can-cer 1998; 83: 2293–301.
  • Ruszniewski P, Rougier P, Roche A, et al. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization in patients with liver metastases of endo-crine tumors. A prospective phase II study in 24 patients. Cancer 1993; 71: 2624–30.
  • Therasse E, Breittmayer F, Roche A, et al. Transcatheter chemoembolization of progressive carcinoid liver metastasis. Radiology 1993; 189: 541–7.
  • Perry LJ, Stuart K, Stokes KR, Clouse ME. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery 1994; 116: 1111–6 (discussion 1116-7).
  • Drougas JG, Anthony LB, Blair TK, et al. Hepatic artery chemoembolization for management of patients with ad-vanced metastatic carcinoid tumors. Am J Surg 1998; 175: 408–12.
  • Diamandidou E, Ajani JA, Yang DJ, et al. Two-phase study of hepatic artery vascular occlusion with microencapsulated cisplatin in patients with liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998; 170: 339–44.
  • Kim YH, Ajani JA, Carrasco CH, et al. Selective hepatic arterial chemoembolization for liver metastases in patients with carcinoid tumor or islet cell carcinoma. Cancer Invest 1999; 17: 474–8.
  • Schupak KD, Wallner KE. The role of radiation therapy in the treatment of locally unresectable or metastatic carcinoid tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1991; 20: 489–95.
  • Kimmig BN. Radiotherapy for gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 488–95.
  • Otte A, Mueller-Brand J, Dellas S, Nitzsche E, Herrmann R, Maecke H. Yttrium-90-labelled somatostatin-analogue for cancer treatment. Lancet 1998; 351: 417–8.
  • Taal BG, Hoefnagel CA, Valdes Olmos RA, Boot H, Beijnen JH. Palliative effect of metaiodobenzylguanidine in metastatic carcinoid tumors. J Clin Oncol 1996; 14: 1829–38.
  • Modlin IM, Cornelius EA, Zoghbi SS, et al. Phase I-II trial of radiolabeled pentetreotide therapy. [Abstract]. Proc Am Soci Clin Oncol 1999; 18: 186a.
  • Que FG, Nagorney DM, Batts KP, Linz LJ, Kvols LK. Hepatic resection for metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas. Am J Surg 1995; 169: 36–42 (discussion 42-43).
  • Frilling A, Rogiers X, Malago M, Liedke O, Kaun M, Broelsch CE. Liver transplantation in patients with liver metastases of neuroendocrine tumors. Transplant Proc 1998; 30: 3298–300.
  • Bechstein W, Neuhaus P. Liver transplantation for hepatic metastases of neuroendocrine tumors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 507–14.
  • Le Treut YP, Delpero JR, Dousset B, et al. Results of liver transplantation in the treatment of metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. A 31-case French multicentric report. Ann Surg 1997; 225: 355–64.
  • Kvols LK. Metastatic carcinoid tumors and the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 464–70.
  • Aranha GV, Greenlee HB. Surgical management of carcinoid tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. Am Surg 1980; 46: 429–35.
  • Syracuse DC, Perzin KH, Price JB, Wiedel PD, Mesa-Tejada R. Carcinoid tumors of the appendix. Mesoappendiceal extension and nodal metastases. Ann Surg 1979; 190: 58–63.
  • McDermott EW, Guduric B, Brennan ME Prognostic vari-ables in patients with gastrointestinal carcinoid tumours. Br J Surg 1994; 81: 1007–9.
  • Ruebi J, Laissue J, Waser B, Horisberger U, Schaer J. Expression of somatostatin receptors in normal inflammed and neoplastic human gastrointestinal tissues. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 733: 122–37.
  • Eller R, Frazee R, Roberts J. Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors. Am Surg 1991; 57: 434–7.
  • Haq AU, Yook CR, Hiremath V, Kasimis BS. Carcinoid syndrome in the absence of liver metastasis: a case report and review of literature. Med Pediatr Oncol 1992; 20: 221–3.
  • Grahame-Smith DG. The carcinoid syndrome. Am J Cardiol 1968; 21: 376–87.
  • Kirshbom PM, Kherani AR, Onaitis MW, Feldman JM, Tyler DS. Carcinoids of unknown origin: comparative analysis with foregut, midgut, and hindgut carcinoids. Surgery 1998; 124: 1063–70.
  • McBride LC, Righi PD, Krakovitz PR. Case study of well-differentiated carcinoid tumor of the larynx and review of laryngeal neuroendocrine tumors. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999; 120: 536–9.
  • Krishnamurthy SC, Dutta V, Pai SA, et al. Primary carcinoid tumor of the liver: report of four resected cases including one with gastrin production. J Surg Oncol 1996; 62: 218–21.
  • Makridis C, Oberg K, Juhlin C, et al. Surgical treatment of mid-gut carcinoid tumors. World J Surg 1990; 14: 377–83 (discussion 384-5).
  • Creutzfeld C, Track NS, Creutzfledt W In vitro studies of the rate of proinsulin and insulin turnover in seven human insulinomas. Eur J Clin Invest 1973; 3: 371–84.
  • Janmohamed S, Bloom SR. Carcinoid tumours. Postgrad Med J 1997; 73(858): 207–14.
  • Kema IP, de Vries EG, Slooff MJ, Biesma B, Muskiet FA. Serotonin, catecholamines, histamine, and their metabolites in urine, platelets, and tumor tissue of patients with carcinoid tumors. Clin Chem 1994; 40: 86–95.
  • Janson ET, Kauppinen HL, Oberg K. Combined alpha- and gamma-interferon therapy for malignant midgut carcinoid tumors. A phase I-II trial. Acta Oncol 1993; 32: 231–3.
  • van Hazel GA, Rubin J, Moertel CG. Treatment of metastatic carcinoid tumor with dactinomycin or dacarbazine. Cancer Treat Rep 1983; 67: 583–5.
  • Bukowski RM, Tangen CM, Peterson RF, Taylor SA, Rinehart JJ, Eyre HJ, et al. Phase II trial of dimethyltriaze-noimidazole carboxamide in patients with metastatic carci-noid. A Southwest Oncology Group study. Cancer 1994; 73: 1505–8.
  • Ritzel U, Leonhardt U, Stockmann F, Ramadori G. Treat-ment of metastasized midgut carcinoids with dacarbazine. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 627–31.
  • Moertel CG, Rubin J, O'Connell MJ. Phase II study of cisplatin therapy in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumor and the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Cancer Treat Rep 1986; 70: 1459–60.
  • Saltz L, Lauwers G, Wiseberg J, Kelsen D. A phase II trial of carboplatin in patients with advanced APUD tumors. Cancer 1993; 72: 619–22.
  • Kelsen D, Fiore J, Heelan R, Cheng E, Magill G. Phase II trial of etoposide in APUD tumors. Cancer Treat Rep 1987; 71: 305–7.
  • Kulke MH, Fuchs CS, Stuart K, Ryan DP, Enziger PC, Vincitore M, et al. Phase II study of docetaxel in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumors. [Abstract]. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2000; 19: 312a.
  • Ajani J, Legha S, Karlin J, et al. Combination chemotherapy of metastatic carcinoid tumors with 5-FU, adriamycin, and cytoxan and 5-FU, adriamycin, mitomycin, and methyl CCNU. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Research 1983; 2: 124.
  • Bukowski RM, Johnson KG, Peterson RF, et al. A phase II trial of combination chemotherapy in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumors. A Southwest Oncology Group Study. Cancer 1987; 60: 2891–5.
  • Moertel CG, Kvols LK, O'Connell MJ, Rubin J. Treatment of neuroendocrine carcinomas with combined etoposide and cisplatin. Evidence of major therapeutic activity in the anaplastic variants of these neoplasms. Cancer 1991; 68: 227–32.
  • Rougier P, Oliveira J, Ducreux M, Theodore C, Kac J, Droz JP. Metastatic carcinoid and islet cell tumours of the pancreas: a phase II trial of the efficacy of combination chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin and cisplatin. Eur J Cancer 1991; 27: 1380–2.
  • Di Bartolomeo M, Bajetta E, Bochicchio AM, et al. A phase II trial of dacarbazine, fluorouracil and epirubicin in patients with neuroendocrine tumours. A study by the Italian Trials in Medical Oncology (I.T.M.0.) Group. Ann Oncol 1995; 6: 77–9.
  • O11ivier S, Fonck M, Becouarn Y, Brunet R. Dacarbazine, fluorouracil, and leucovorin in patients with advanced neu-roendocrine tumors: a phase II trial. Am J Clin Oncol 1998; 21: 237–40.
  • Maton PN, Camilleri M, Griffin G, Allison DJ, Hodgson HJ, Chadwick VS. Role of hepatic arterial embolisation in the carcinoid syndrome. Br Med J 1983; 287: 932–5.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.