Outpatient management of essential hypertension: a review based on the latest clinical guidelines

References

• Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2018;138(17):1–17. Oct 23 doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigin VL, Norrving B, Mensah GA. Global burden of stroke. Circ Res. 2017;120(3):439–448. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.308413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Donnell MJ, Xavier D, Liu L, et al. Risk factors for ischaemic and intracerebral haemorrhagic stroke in 22 countries (the INTERSTROKE study): a case-control study. Lancet. 2010;376(9735):112–123. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60834-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrick D, Haig C, Maznyczka AM, et al. Hypertension, microvascular pathology, and prognosis after an acute myocardial infarction. Hypertension. 2018;72(3):720–730. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.10786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Psaty BM, Furberg CD, Kuller LH, et al. Association between blood pressure level and the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and total mortality: the cardiovascular health study. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161(9):1183–1192. doi: 10.1001/archinte.161.9.1183.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy D, Larson MG, Vasan RS, et al. The progression from hypertension to congestive heart failure. JAMA. 1996;275(20):1557–1562. doi: 10.1001/jama.1996.03530440037034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bidani AK, Griffin KA. Pathophysiology of hypertensive renal damage: implications for therapy. Hypertension. 2004;44(5):595–601. Nov doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000145180.38707.84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danaei G, Ding EL, Mozaffarian D, et al. The preventable causes of death in the United States: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. PLOS Med. 2009;6(4):e1000058. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Data from: National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). 2015–2018.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou B, Carrillo-Larco RM, Danaei G, et al. Worldwide trends in hypertension prevalence and progress in treatment and control from 1990 to 2019: a pooled analysis of 1201 population-representative studies with 104 million participants. Lancet. 2021;398(10304):957–980. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01330-1.
   Google Scholar
• Rossi GP, Bisogni V, Rossitto G, et al. Practice recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of the most common forms of secondary hypertension. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev. 2020;27(6):547–560. Dec doi: 10.1007/s40292-020-00415-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taler, SJ. Secondary causes of hypertension. Prim Care Clin Office Pract. 2008;35(3):489–500. doi: 10.1016/j.pop.2008.06.001.
   Google Scholar
• Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European society of cardiology and the European society of hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European society of cardiology and the European society of hypertension. J Hypertens. 2018;36(10):1953–2041. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000001940.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA.2003;289(19):2560–2572. doi: 10.1001/jama.289.19.2560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garies S, Hao S, McBrien K, et al. Prevalence of hypertension, treatment, and blood pressure targets in Canada associated with the 2017 American college of cardiology and American heart association blood pressure guidelines. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(3):e190406. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.0406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Sierra A. New American and european hypertension guidelines, reconciling the differences. Cardiol Ther. 2019;8(2):157–166. doi: 10.1007/s40119-019-0144-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Zhang S, Deng Y, et al. Trial of intensive blood-pressure control in older patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(14):1268–1279. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2111437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabi DM, McBrien KA, Sapir-Pichhadze R, et al. Hypertension Canada’s 2020 comprehensive guidelines for the prevention, diagnosis, risk assessment, and treatment of hypertension in adults and children. Can J Cardiol. 2020;36(5):596–624. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2020.02.086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(17):1575–1585. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1001286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright JT, Williamson JD, Whelton PK, et al. A randomized trial of intensive versus standard blood-pressure control. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(22):2103–2116. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1511939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drawz PE, Ix JH. BP measurement in clinical practice: time to SPRINT to guideline-recommended protocols. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2018;29(2):383–388. Feb doi: 10.1681/ASN.2017070753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stergiou GS, Palatini P, Parati G, et al. 2021 European society of hypertension practice guidelines for office and out-of-office blood pressure measurement. J Hypertens. 2021;39(7):1293–1302. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000002843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McManus RJ, Mant J, Franssen M, et al. Efficacy of self-monitored blood pressure, with or without telemonitoring, for titration of antihypertensive medication (TASMINH4): an unmasked randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;391(10124):949–959. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30309-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velasquez MT, Beddhu S, Nobakht E, et al. Ambulatory blood pressure in chronic kidney disease: ready for prime time? Kidney Int Rep. 2016;1(2):94–104. doi: 10.1016/j.ekir.2016.05.001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim CS, Choi HS, Bae EH, et al. Optimal blood pressure target and measurement in patients with chronic kidney disease. Korean J Intern Med. 2019;34(6):1181–1187.v doi: 10.3904/kjim.2019.164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanno A, Kikuya M, Asayama K, et al. Night-time blood pressure is associated with the development of chronic kidney disease in a general population: the ohasama study. J Hypertens. 2013;31(12):2410–2417. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0b013e328364dd0f.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang WY, Melgarejo JD, Thijs L, et al. Association of office and ambulatory blood pressure with mortality and cardiovascular outcomes. JAMA. 2019;322(5):409–420. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.9811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parati G, Ochoa JE, Salvi P, et al. Prognostic value of blood pressure variability and average blood pressure levels in patients with hypertension and diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2013;36 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):S312–S24. doi: 10.2337/dcS13-2043.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pickering TG, Shimbo D, Haas D. Ambulatory blood-pressure monitoring. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(22):2368–2374. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra060433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shang W, Zhang Y, Liu L, et al. Benefits of continuous positive airway pressure on blood pressure in patients with hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea: a meta-analysis. Hypertens Res. 2022;45(11):1802–1813. doi: 10.1038/s41440-022-00954-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell NRC, Paccot Burnens M, Whelton PK, et al. 2021 World health organization guideline on pharmacological treatment of hypertension: policy implications for the region of the Americas. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2022;9: none. doi: 10.1016/j.lana.2022.100219.
   Google Scholar
• Hall JE. The kidney, hypertension, and obesity. Hypertension. 2003;41(3 Pt 2):625–633. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000052314.95497.78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones DW, Kim JS, Andrew ME, et al. Body mass index and blood pressure in Korean men and women: the Korean National blood pressure survey. J Hypertens. 1994;12(12):1433–1437. doi: 10.1097/00004872-199412000-00018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrison RJ, Kannel WB, Stokes J, 3rd, et al. Incidence and precursors of hypertension in young adults: the Framingham offspring study. Prev Med. 1987;16(2):235–251. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(87)90087-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss EP, Albert SG, Reeds DN, et al. Effects of matched weight loss from calorie restriction, exercise, or both on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a randomized intervention trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;104(3):576–586. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.116.131391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garvey WT, Mechanick JI, Brett EM, et al. American association of clinical endocrinologists and American college of endocrinology comprehensive clinical practice guidelines for medical care of patients with obesity. Endocr Pract. 2016;22 Suppl 3:1–203. Jul doi: 10.4158/EP161365.GL.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jebb SA, Ahern AL, Olson AD, et al. Primary care referral to a commercial provider for weight loss treatment versus standard care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;378(9801):1485–1492. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61344-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, et al. 2016 European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: the sixth joint task force of the European society of cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts)developed with the special contribution of the European association for cardiovascular prevention & rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur Heart J. 2016;37(29):2315–2381. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehw106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornelissen VA, Smart NA. Exercise training for blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013;2(1):e004473. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.112.004473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald HV, Johnson BT, Huedo-Medina TB, et al. Dynamic resistance training as stand-alone antihypertensive lifestyle therapy: a meta-analysis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5(10):e003231. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116.003231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sosner P, Guiraud T, Gremeaux V, et al. The ambulatory hypotensive effect of aerobic training: a reappraisal through a meta-analysis of selected moderators. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2017;27(3):327–341. Mar doi: 10.1111/sms.12661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams MA, Haskell WL, Ades PA, et al. Resistance exercise in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: 2007 update: a scientific statement from the American heart association council on clinical cardiology and council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism. Circulation. 2007;116(5):572–584. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.185214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naci H, Salcher-Konrad M, Dias S, et al. How does exercise treatment compare with antihypertensive medications? A network meta-analysis of 391 randomised controlled trials assessing exercise and medication effects on systolic blood pressure. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(14):859–869. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2018-099921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa EC, Hay JL, Kehler DS, et al. Effects of high-intensity interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training on blood pressure in adults with pre- to established hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Sports Med. 2018;48(9):2127–2142. Sep doi: 10.1007/s40279-018-0944-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Psaltopoulou T, Naska A, Orfanos P, et al. Olive oil, the mediterranean diet, and arterial blood pressure: the greek European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC) study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(4):1012–1018. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/80.4.1012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-sodium collaborative research group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(1):3–10. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200101043440101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gay HC, Rao SG, Vaccarino V, et al. Effects of different dietary interventions on blood pressure: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension. 2016;67(4):733–739. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.06853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esposito K, Kastorini CM, Panagiotakos DB, et al. Mediterranean diet and weight loss: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Metab Syndr Relat Disord. 2011;9(1):1–12. doi: 10.1089/met.2010.0031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall ME, Cohen JB, Ard JD, et al. Weight-Loss strategies for prevention and treatment of hypertension: a scientific statement from the American heart association. Hypertension. 2021;78(5):e38–e50. doi: 10.1161/HYP.0000000000000202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graudal N, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jurgens G, et al. Dose-response relation between dietary sodium and blood pressure: a meta-regression analysis of 133 randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;109(5):1273–1278. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqy384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang L, Trieu K, Yoshimura S, et al. Effect of dose and duration of reduction in dietary sodium on blood pressure levels: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2020;368:m315. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m315.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Unger T, Borghi C, Charchar F, et al. 2020 International society of hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. Hypertension. 2020;75(6):1334–1357. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, et al. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380(9859):2224–2260. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundbäck M, Antoniewicz L, Brynedal A, et al. Acute effects of active e-cigarette inhalation on arterial stiffness. Eur Respir J. 2017;50(61) OA1979. doi: 10.1183/1393003.congress-2017.
   Google Scholar
• Tattersall MC, Hughey CM, Piasecki TM, et al. Abstract 11674: acute effects of nicotine-containing product challenges on cardiovascular and autonomic function among electronic cigarette vapers, combustible cigarette smokers, and controls: the CLUES study. Circulation. 2022;146:A11674. doi: 10.1161/circ.146.suppl_1.11674Circulation.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlachopoulos C, Ioakeimidis N, Abdelrasoul M, et al. Electronic cigarette smoking increases aortic stiffness and blood pressure in young smokers. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;67(23):2802–2803. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peruzzi M, Biondi-Zoccai G, Carnevale R, et al. Vaping cardiovascular health risks: an updated umbrella review. Curr Emerg Hosp Med Rep. 2020;8(3):103–109. doi: 10.1007/s40138-020-00219-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller CR, Shi H, Li D, et al. Cross-Sectional associations of smoking and E-cigarette use with self-Reported diagnosed hypertension: findings from wave 3 of the population assessment of tobacco and health study. Toxics. 2021;9(3):52. doi: 10.3390/toxics9030052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parati G, Kjeldsen S, Coca A, et al. Adherence to single-pill versus free-equivalent combination therapy in hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hypertension. 2021;77(2):692–705. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe M, Gallo G, Tocci G. New approach to blood pressure control: triple combination pill. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2020;30(2):72–77. doi: 10.1016/j.tcm.2019.03.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow CK, Atkins ER, Hillis GS, et al. Initial treatment with a single pill containing quadruple combination of quarter doses of blood pressure medicines versus standard dose monotherapy in patients with hypertension (QUARTET): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10305):1043–1052. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01922-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster R, Salam A, de Silva HA, et al. Fixed low-dose triple combination antihypertensive medication vs usual care for blood pressure control in patients with mild to moderate hypertension in Sri Lanka: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2018;320(6):566–579. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.10359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey RM, Calhoun DA, Bakris GL, et al. Resistant hypertension: detection, evaluation, and management: a scientific statement from the American heart association. Hypertension. 2018;72(5):e53–e90. Nov doi: 10.1161/HYP.0000000000000084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams B, MacDonald TM, Morant S, et al. Spironolactone versus placebo, bisoprolol, and doxazosin to determine the optimal treatment for drug-resistant hypertension (PATHWAY-2): a randomised, double-blind, crossover trial. Lancet. 2015;386(10008):2059–2068. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00257-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauder L, Mahfoud F, Azizi M, et al. Hypertension management in patients with cardiovascular comorbidities. Eur Heart J. 2023;44(23):2066–2077. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehac395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akbari P, Khorasani-Zadeh A. Thiazide Diuretics. [Updated 2023 Jan 23]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532918/
   Google Scholar
• Olde Engberink RH, Frenkel WJ, van den Bogaard B, et al. Effects of thiazide-type and thiazide-like diuretics on cardiovascular events and mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. Hypertension. 2015;65(5):1033–1040. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.05122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishani A, Cushman WC, Leatherman SM, et al. Chlorthalidone vs. hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension-cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(26):2401–2410. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2212270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishani A, Cushman WC, Leatherman SM. Chlorthalidone vs. hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension-cardiovascular events. Reply. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(14):1342. Apr 6 doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2301922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaaban N, Kshatriya S. Thiazide-induced pancreatitis. Kans J Med. 2022;15(2):220–221. doi: 10.17161/kjm.vol15.16534.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martins VM, Ziegelmann PK, Ferrari F, et al. Thiazide diuretics alone or combined with potassium-sparing diuretics to treat hypertension: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens. 2023;41(7):1108–1116. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000003436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teles F, Peçanha de Miranda Coelho JA, Albino RM, et al. Effectiveness of thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics in advanced chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ren Fail. 2023;45(1):2163903. doi: 10.1080/0886022X.2022.2163903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal R, Sinha AD, Cramer AE, et al. Chlorthalidone for hypertension in advanced chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(27):2507–2519. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2110730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feig PU. Cellular mechanism of action of loop diuretics: implications for drug effectiveness and adverse effects. Am J Cardiol. 1986;57(2):14A–19A. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(86)91001-5.
   Google Scholar
• Weir MR, Dzau VJ. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: a specific target for hypertension management. Am J Hypertension. 1999;12(S9):205S–213S. doi: 10.1016/S0895-7061(99)00103-X.
   Google Scholar
• Chen R, Suchard MA, Krumholz HM, et al. Comparative first-line effectiveness and safety of ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers: a multinational cohort study. Hypertension. 2021;78(3):591–603. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.16667.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piepho RW. Overview of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2000;57(Suppl 1):S3–S7. doi: 10.1093/ajhp/57.suppl_1.S3.
   Google Scholar
• Burnakis TG, Mioduch HJ. Combined therapy with captopril and potassium supplementation. A potential for hyperkalemia. Arch Intern Med. 1984;144(12):2371–2372.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khosla S, Ahmed A, Siddiqui M, et al. Safety of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in patients with bilateral renal artery stenosis following successful renal artery stent revascularization. Am J Ther. 2006;13(4):306–308. doi: 10.1097/00045391-200607000-00005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lunde H, Hedner T, Samuelsson O, et al. Dyspnoea, asthma, and bronchospasm in relation to treatment with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. BMJ. 1994;308(6920):18–21. doi: 10.1136/bmj.308.6920.18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Israili ZH, Hall WD. Cough and angioneurotic edema associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy. A review of the literature and pathophysiology. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117(3):234–242. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-117-3-234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Overlack A. ACE inhibitor-induced cough and bronchospasm. Incidence, mechanisms and management. Drug Saf. 1996;15(1):72–78. doi: 10.2165/00002018-199615010-00006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kronish IM, Woodward M, Sergie Z, et al. Meta-analysis: impact of drug class on adherence to antihypertensives. Circulation. 2011;123(15):1611–1621. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.983874.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(15):1547–1559. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0801317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmer A, Slater N, Smithgall S. A review of ACE inhibitors and ARBs in black patients with hypertension. Ann Pharmacother. 2018;52(11):1143–1151. doi: 10.1177/1060028018779082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams SF, Nicholas SB, Vaziri ND, et al. African Americans, hypertension and the renin angiotensin system. World J Cardiol. 2014;6(9):878–889. doi: 10.4330/wjc.v6.i9.878.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Palla M, Ando T, Androulakis E, et al. Renin-Angiotensin system inhibitors vs other antihypertensives in hypertensive blacks: a meta-analysis. J Clin Hypertens 2017;19(4):344–350. doi: 10.1111/jch.12867.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Triggle DJ. The physiological and pharmacological significance of cardiovascular T-type, voltage-gated calcium channels. Am J Hypertens. 1998;11(4):80S–87S. doi: 10.1016/s0895-7061(98)00004-1.
   Google Scholar
• Nathan S, Pepine CJ, Bakris GL. Calcium antagonists: effects on cardio-renal risk in hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 2005;46(4):637–642. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000184541.24700.c7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ettehad D, Emdin CA, Kiran A, et al. Blood pressure lowering for prevention of cardiovascular disease and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2016;387(10022):957–967. Mar 5 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01225-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomopoulos C, Parati G, Zanchetti A. Effects of blood pressure-lowering on outcome incidence in hypertension: 5. Head-to-head comparisons of various classes of antihypertensive drugs - overview and meta-analyses. J Hypertens. 2015;33(7):1321–1341. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000000614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaugai S, Sherpa LY, Sepehry AA, et al. Effects of long- and Intermediate-Acting dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers in hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 prospective, randomized, actively controlled trials. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2018;23(5):433–445. doi: 10.1177/1074248418771341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubota K, Pearce GL, Inman WH. Vasodilation-related adverse events in diltiazem and dihydropyridine calcium antagonists studied by prescription-event monitoring. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1995;48(1):1–7. doi: 10.1007/BF00202163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kusumoto FM, Schoenfeld MH, Barrett C, et al. 2018 ACC/AHA/HRS guideline on the evaluation and management of patients with bradycardia and cardiac conduction delay: a report of the American college of cardiology/American heart association task force on clinical practice guidelines and the heart rhythm society. Circulation. 2019;140(8):e382–e482. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000628.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opie LH. Calcium channel antagonists. Part IV: side effects and contraindications drug interactions and combinations. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 1988;2(2):177–189. doi: 10.1007/BF00051233.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Farzam K, Jan A. Beta Blockers. [Updated 2023 Aug 22]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532906
   Google Scholar
• Wiysonge CS, Bradley HA, Volmink J, et al. Beta-blockers for hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;1(1):CD002003. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD002003.pub5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khan N, McAlister FA. Re-examining the efficacy of beta-blockers for the treatment of hypertension: a meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2006;174(12):1737–1742. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.060110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podymow T, August P. Update on the use of antihypertensive drugs in pregnancy. Hypertension. 2008;51(4):960–969. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.106.075895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown CM, Garovic VD. Drug treatment of hypertension in pregnancy. Drugs. 2014;74(3):283–296. doi: 10.1007/s40265-014-0187-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park E. Inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system during fetal kidney development. Clin Exp Pediatr. 2021;64(3):121–122. doi: 10.3345/cep.2020.01228.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bullo M, Tschumi S, Bucher BS, et al. Pregnancy outcome following exposure to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor antagonists: a systematic review. Hypertension. 2012;60(2):444–450. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.112.196352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiciński M, Malinowski B, Puk O, et al. Methyldopa as an inductor of postpartum depression and maternal blues: a review. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;127:110196. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández-Ruiz I. Promising novel siRNA for the treatment of hypertension. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2023;20(10):647–647. doi: 10.1038/s41569-023-00916-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desai AS, Webb DJ, Taubel J, et al. Zilebesiran, an RNA interference therapeutic agent for hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(3):228–238. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2208391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malik AH, Aronow WS. Efficacy of sacubitril/valsartan in hypertension. Am J Ther. 2022;29(3):e322–e333. doi: 10.1097/MJT.0000000000000925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman MW, Halvorsen YD, Marshall W, et al. Phase 2 trial of baxdrostat for treatment-resistant hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(5):395–405. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2213169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlaich MP, Bellet M, Weber MA, et al. Dual endothelin antagonist aprocitentan for resistant hypertension (PRECISION): a multicentre, blinded, randomised, parallel-group, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2022;400(10367):1927–1937. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02034-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garvey WT, Batterham RL, Bhatta M, et al. Two-year effects of semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity: the STEP 5 trial. Nat Med. 2022;28(10):2083–2091. doi: 10.1038/s41591-022-02026-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205–216. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2206038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta A, Marso SP, Neeland IJ. Liraglutide for weight management: a critical review of the evidence. Obes Sci Pract. 2017;3(1):3–14. doi: 10.1002/osp4.84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilding JPH, Batterham RL, Calanna S, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989–1002. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2032183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao X, Hua X, Wang X, et al. Efficacy and safety of semaglutide on weight loss in obese or overweight patients without diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:935823. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2022.935823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Q, Zhou S, Liu L. Efficacy and safety evaluation of SGLT2i on blood pressure control in patients with type 2 diabetes and hypertension: a new meta-analysis. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2023;15(1):118. doi: 10.1186/s13098-023-01092-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad Y, Francis DP, Bhatt DL, et al. Renal denervation for hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled trials. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2021;14(23):2614–2624. doi: 10.1016/j.jcin.2021.09.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sesa-Ashton G, Nolde JM, Muente I, et al. Catheter-based renal denervation: 9-year follow-up data on safety and blood pressure reduction in patients with resistant hypertension. Hypertension. 2023;80(4):811–819. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.122.20853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallbach M, Koziolek MJ. Baroreceptors in the carotid and hypertension-systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of baroreflex activation therapy on blood pressure. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2018;33(9):1485–1493. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfx279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birtwhistle RV, Godwin MS, Delva MD, et al. Randomised equivalence trial comparing three month and six month follow up of patients with hypertension by family practitioners. BMJ. 2004;328(7433):204–200. doi: 10.1136/bmj.37967.374063.EE.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rave K, Bender R, Heise T, et al. Value of blood pressure self-monitoring as a predictor of progression of diabetic nephropathy. J Hypertens. 1999;17(5):597–601. doi: 10.1097/00004872-199917050-00002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson AL, Taylor DW, Sackett DL, et al. Self-recording of blood pressure in the management of hypertension. Can Med Assoc J. 1978;119(9):1034–1039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omboni S, McManus RJ, Bosworth HB, et al. Evidence and recommendations on the use of telemedicine for the management of arterial hypertension: an international expert position paper. Hypertension. 2020;76(5):1368–1383. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15873.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omboni S, Panzeri E, Campolo L. E-health in hypertension management: an insight into the current and future role of blood pressure telemonitoring. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2020;22(6):42. doi: 10.1007/s11906-020-01056-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang JG, Li Y, Chia YC, et al. Telemedicine in the management of hypertension: evolving technological platforms for blood pressure telemonitoring. J Clin Hypertens 2021;23(3):435–439. doi: 10.1111/jch.14194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills KT, Stefanescu A, He J. The global epidemiology of hypertension. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2020;16(4):223–237. doi: 10.1038/s41581-019-0244-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar