Childhood trauma in adults with ADHD is associated with comorbid anxiety disorders and functional impairment

References

• Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E. The age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychol Med. 2006;36(2):159–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polanczyk GV, Willcutt EG, Salum GA, et al. ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43(2):434–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Graaf R, Kessler RC, Fayyad J, et al. The prevalence and effects of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on the performance of workers: results from the WHO world mental health survey initiative. Occup Environ Med. 2008;65(12):835–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willcutt EG. The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics. 2012;9(3):490–499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the national comorbidity survey replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):716–723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faraone SV, Larsson H. Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2019;24(4):562–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Q, Brikell I, Lichtenstein P, et al. Familial aggregation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2017;58(3):231–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalsgaard S, Ostergaard SD, Leckman JF, et al. Mortality in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a nationwide cohort study. Lancet. 2015;385(9983):2190–2196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Faraone SV, et al. Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: key conceptual issues. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(6):568–578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solberg BS, Halmoy A, Engeland A, et al. Gender differences in psychiatric comorbidity: a population-based study of 40 000 adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2018;137(3):176–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katzman MA, Bilkey TS, Chokka PR, et al. Adult ADHD and comorbid disorders: clinical implications of a dimensional approach. BMC Psychiatry. 2017;17(1):302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylander L, Holmqvist M, Gustafson L, et al. ADHD in adult psychiatry. Minimum rates and clinical presentation in general psychiatry outpatients. Nord J Psychiatry. 2009;63(1):64–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes V, Osório FL. Are there associations between early emotional trauma and anxiety disorders? Evidence from a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Eur Psychiatry. 2015;30(6):756–764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandelli L, Petrelli C, Serretti A. The role of specific early trauma in adult depression: a meta-analysis of published literature. Childhood trauma and adult depression. Eur Psychiatry. 2015;30(6):665–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller ML, Brock RL. The effect of trauma on the severity of obsessive-compulsive spectrum symptoms: a meta-analysis. J Anxiety Disord. 2017;47:29–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biederman J, Petty CR, Dolan C, et al. The long-term longitudinal course of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder in ADHD boys: findings from a controlled 10-year prospective longitudinal follow-up study. Psychol Med. 2008;38(7):1027–1036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes K, Bellis MA, Hardcastle KA, et al. The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health. 2017;2(8):e356–e366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovran A, Winje D, Øverland S, et al. Childhood maltreatment and adult mental health. Nord J Psychiatry. 2016;70(2):140–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski K, Sapanski L, Conway F. Trauma and ADHD–association or diagnostic confusion? A clinical perspective. J Infant Child Adolesc Psychother. 2011;10(1):51–59.
   Google Scholar
• Thapar A, Cooper M. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet. 2016;387(10024):1240–1250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford JD, Connor DF. ADHD and posttraumatic stress disorder. Curr Atten Disord Rep. 2009;1(2):60–66.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer AE, Faraone SV, Bogucki OE, et al. Examining the association between posttraumatic stress disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(01):72–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schilpzand EJ, Sciberras E, Alisic E, et al. Trauma exposure in children with and without ADHD: prevalence and functional impairment in a community-based study of 6–8-year-old Australian children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018;27(6):811–819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler LA, Kunz M, Chua HC, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): is ADHD a vulnerability factor? J Atten Disord. 2004;8(1):11–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrington KM, Miller MW, Wolf EJ, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder comorbidity in a sample of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Compr Psychiatry 2012;53(6):679–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredriksen M, Dahl AA, Martinsen EW, et al. Effectiveness of one-year pharmacological treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an open-label prospective study of time in treatment, dose, side-effects and comorbidity. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24(12):1873–1884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed., text rev. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler D. WAIS-IV manual. New York (NY): The Psychological Corporation; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Kooij JJS. Diagnostic assessment and treatment. Adult ADHD. 3rd ed. London: Springer-Verlag; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Fredriksen M, Dahl AA, Martinsen EW, et al. Childhood and persistent ADHD symptoms associated with educational failure and long-term occupational disability in adult ADHD. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2014;6(2):87–99.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheehan D, Janavs J, Baker R, et al. Mini international neuropsychiatric interview. Tampa (FL): University of South Florida; 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Foa EB, Tolin DF. Comparison of the PTSD symptom scale-interview version and the clinician-administered PTSD scale. J Trauma Stress. 2000;13(2):181–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retz-Junginger P, Retz W, Blocher D, et al. [Reliability and validity of the Wender-Utah-Rating-Scale short form. Retrospective assessment of symptoms for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder]. Nervenarzt. 2003;74(11):987–993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retz-Junginger P, Retz W, Blocher D, et al. [Wender Utah rating scale. The short-version for the assessment of the attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults]. Nervenarzt. 2002;73(9):830–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward MF, Wender PH, Reimherr FW. The Wender Utah rating scale: an aid in the retrospective diagnosis of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150(6):885–890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guy W. ECDEU assessment manual for psychopharmacology. Vol. 76. Rockville (MD): U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute of Mental Health, Psychopharmacology Research Branch, Division of Extramural Research Programs; 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Leucht S, Kane JM, Kissling W, et al. Clinical implications of brief psychiatric rating scale scores. Br J Psychiatry. 2005;187:366–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aas IH. Guidelines for rating global assessment of functioning (GAF). Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2011;10:2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen G, Karterud S. The symptom and function dimensions of the global assessment of functioning (GAF) scale. Compr Psychiatry. 2012;53(3):292–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler LA, Spencer T, Faraone SV, et al. Validity of pilot adult ADHD Self-Report scale (ASRS) to rate adult ADHD symptoms. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2006;18(3):145–148.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Biederman J, Fitzgerald M, Spencer TJ, et al. Informativeness of self-reports of ADHD symptoms in monitoring response to stimulant treatment in clinically referred adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2020;24(3):420–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagerland MW. t-Tests, non-parametric tests, and large studies—a paradox of statistical practice? BMC Med Res Methodol. 2012;12(1):78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong RA. When to use the Bonferroni correction. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2014;34(5):502–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barzilay R, Calkins ME, Moore TM, et al. Association between traumatic stress load, psychopathology, and cognition in the Philadelphia neurodevelopmental cohort. Psychol Med. 2019;49(2):325–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgardh K, Ormstad K. Prevalence and characteristics of sexual abuse in a national sample of Swedish seventeen-year-old boys and girls. Acta Paediatr. 2000;89(3):310–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurvits TV, Gilbertson MW, Lasko NB, et al. Neurologic soft signs in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(2):181–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Meer D, Hoekstra PJ, van Donkelaar M, et al. Predicting attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder severity from psychosocial stress and stress-response genes: a random forest regression approach. Transl Psychiatry. 2017;7(6):e1145.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Biederman J, Petty CR, Spencer TJ, et al. Examining the nature of the comorbidity between pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2013;128(1):78–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antshel KM, Kaul P, Biederman J, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: clinical features and familial transmission. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(3):e197–e204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alisic E, Zalta AK, van Wesel F, et al. Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204:335–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nothling J, Simmons C, Suliman S, et al. Trauma type as a conditional risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder in a referred clinic sample of adolescents. Compr Psychiatry. 2017;76:138–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strauß M, Ulke C, Paucke M, et al. Brain arousal regulation in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychiatry Res. 2018;261:102–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn EC, Nishimi K, Gomez SH, et al. Developmental timing of trauma exposure and emotion dysregulation in adulthood: are there sensitive periods when trauma is most harmful? J Affect Disord. 2018;227:869–877.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar