2,571
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW ARTICLE

Influenza virus in wild birds and mammals other than man

Pages 122-139 | Received 04 Apr 2007, Published online: 11 Jul 2009

References

  • Nicholson KG, Webster RG, Hay AJ. Textbook of influenza. Blackwell Science, London 1998
  • Johnson NP, Mueller J. Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918–1920 “Spanish” influenza pandemic. Bull Hist Med 2002; 76: 105–15
  • Oxford JS, Lambkin R, Sefton A, Daniels R, Elliot A, Brown R, et al. A hypothesis: the conjunction of soldiers, gas, pigs, ducks, geese and horses in northern France during the Great War provided the conditions for the emergence of the “Spanish” influenza pandemic of 1918–1919. Vaccine 2005; 23: 940–5
  • Smith W, Andrewes CH, Laidlaw PP. A virus obtained from influenza patients. Lancet 1933;ii:66–8.
  • Smith W, Stuart-Harris CH. Influenza infection of man from the ferret. Lancet 1936;ii:121–3.
  • Reid AH, Fanning TG, Hultin JV, Taubenberger JK. Origin and evolution of the 1918 “Spanish” influenza virus hemagglutinin gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999; 96: 1651–6
  • Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Fanning TG. The 1918 influenza virus: a killer comes into view. Virology 2000; 274: 241–5
  • Reid AH, Fanning TG, Janczewski TA, Taubenberger JK. Characterization of the 1918 “Spanish” influenza virus neuraminidase gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97: 6785–90
  • Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Janczewski TA, Fanning TG. Integrating historical, clinical and molecular genetic data in order to explain the origin and virulence of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus. Phil Trans R Soc Lond 2001; 356: 1829–39
  • Basler CF, Reid AH, Dybing JK, Janczewski TA, Fanning TG, Zheng H, et al. Sequence of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nonstructural gene (NS) segment and characterization of recombinant viruses bearing the 1918 NS genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98: 2746–51
  • Reid AH, Fanning TG, Janczewski TA, McCall S, Taubenberger JK. Characterization of the 1918 “Spanish” influenza virus matrix gene segment. J Virol 2002; 76: 10717–23
  • Reid AH, Janczewski TA, Lourens RM, Elliot AJ, Daniels RS, Berry CL, et al. 1918 influenza pandemic caused by highly conserved viruses with two receptor-binding variants. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 1249–53
  • Reid AH, Fanning TG, Janczewski TA, Lourens RM, Taubenberger JK. Novel origin of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nucleoprotein gene. J Virol 2004; 78: 12462–70
  • Reid AH, Taubenberger JK, Fanning TG. Evidence of an absence: the genetic origins of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus. Nat Rev Microbiol 2004; 2: 909–14
  • Oxford JS. Influenza A pandemics of the 20th century with special reference to 1918: virology, pathology and epidemiology. Rev Med Virol 2000; 10: 119–33
  • Palese P. Influenza: old and new threats. Nat Med 2004;10(12 Suppl):S82–7.
  • Capua IMF. A colour atlas and text on avian influenza. Papi Editore, Bologna 2001
  • Munster VJ, Wallensten A, Baas C, Rimmelzwaan GF, Schutten M, Olsen B, et al. Mallards and highly pathogenic avian influenza ancestral viruses, northern Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 1545–51
  • Becker WB. The isolation and classification of Tern virus: influenza A-Tern South Africa – 1961. J Hyg 1966; 64: 309–20
  • Slemons RD, Johnson DC, Osborn JS, Hayes F. Type-A influenza viruses isolated from wild free-flying ducks in California. Avian Dis 1974; 18: 119–24
  • Webster RG, Bean WJ, Gorman OT, Chambers TM, Kawaoka Y. Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiol Rev 1992; 56: 152–79
  • Ito T, Kawaoka Y. Host-range barrier of influenza A viruses. Vet Microbiol 2000; 74: 71–5
  • Alexander DJ. A review of avian influenza in different bird species. Vet Microbiol. 2000; 74: 3–13
  • Zanella A, Dall'Ara P, Martino PA. Avian influenza epidemic in Italy due to serovar H7N1. Avian Dis. 2001; 45: 257–61
  • Capua I, Alexander DJ. Human health implications of avian influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 23: 1–6
  • Chan PK. Outbreak of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in Hong Kong in 1997. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34(Suppl 2)S58–64
  • WHO. Cumulative number of confirmed human cases of avian influenza A/(H5N1) reported to WHO. Available from: http://www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/cases_table_2007_05_16/en/index.html.
  • Keawcharoen J, Oraveerakul K, Kuiken T, Fouchier RA, Amonsin A, Payungporn S, et al. Avian influenza H5N1 in tigers and leopards. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 2189–91
  • Thanawongnuwech R, Amonsin A, Tantilertcharoen R, Damrongwatanapokin S, Theamboonlers A, Payungporn S, et al. Probable tiger-to-tiger transmission of avian influenza H5N1. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 699–701
  • Kuiken T, Rimmelzwaan G, van Riel D, van Amerongen G, Baars M, Fouchier R, et al. Avian H5N1 influenza in cats. Science 2004; 306: 241
  • de Jong MD, Hien TT. Avian influenza A (H5N1). J Clin Virol 2006; 35: 2–13
  • Chen H, Smith GJ, Zhang SY, Qin K, Wang J, Li KS, et al. Avian flu: H5N1 virus outbreak in migratory waterfowl. Nature 2005; 436: 191–2
  • Liu J, Xiao H, Lei F, Zhu Q, Qin K, Zhang XW, et al. Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus infection in migratory birds. Science 2005; 309: 1206
  • Chen H, Deng G, Li Z, Tian G, Li Y, Jiao P, et al. The evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in ducks in southern China. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101: 10452–7
  • Webster RG, Peiris M, Chen H, Guan Y. H5N1 outbreaks and enzootic influenza. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 3–8
  • Gilbert M, Chaitaweesub P, Parakamawongsa T, Premashthira S, Tiensin T, Kalpravidh W, et al. Free-grazing ducks and highly pathogenic avian influenza, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 227–34
  • Kilbourne ED. Influenza pandemics of the 20th century. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 9–14
  • Hilleman MR. Realities and enigmas of human viral influenza: pathogenesis, epidemiology and control. Vaccine 2002; 20: 3068–87
  • Chen W, Calvo PA, Malide D, Gibbs J, Schubert U, Bacik I, et al. A novel influenza A virus mitochondrial protein that induces cell death. Nat Med 2001; 7: 1306–12
  • Fouchier RA, Munster V, Wallensten A, Bestebroer TM, Herfst S, Smith D, et al. Characterization of a novel influenza A virus hemagglutinin subtype (H16) obtained from black-headed gulls. J Virol 2005; 79: 2814–22
  • Zell R, Krumbholz A, Eitner A, Krieg R, Halbhuber KJ, Wutzler P. Prevalence of PB1-F2 of influenza A viruses. J Gen Virol 2007; 88(Pt 2)536–46
  • Rogers GN, Paulson JC. Receptor determinants of human and animal influenza virus isolates: differences in receptor specificity of the H3 hemagglutinin based on species of origin. Virology 1983; 127: 361–73
  • Connor RJ, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG, Paulson JC. Receptor specificity in human, avian, and equine H2 and H3 influenza virus isolates. Virology 1994; 205: 17–23
  • Steinhauer DA. Role of hemagglutinin cleavage for the pathogenicity of influenza virus. Virology 1999; 258: 1–20
  • Wakefield L, Brownlee GG. RNA-binding properties of influenza A virus matrix protein M1. Nucleic Acids Res 1989; 17: 8569–80
  • Martin K, Helenius A. Nuclear transport of influenza virus ribonucleoproteins: the viral matrix protein (M1) promotes export and inhibits import. Cell 1991; 67: 117–30
  • Mikulasova A, Vareckova E, Fodor E. Transcription and replication of the influenza A virus genome. Acta Virol 2000; 44: 273–82
  • Liu C, Eichelberger MC, Compans RW, Air GM. Influenza type A virus neuraminidase does not play a role in viral entry, replication, assembly, or budding. J Virol 1995; 69: 1099–106
  • Matrosovich MN, Matrosovich TY, Gray T, Roberts NA, Klenk HD. Neuraminidase is important for the initiation of influenza virus infection in human airway epithelium. J Virol 2004; 78: 12665–7
  • De Jong JC, Rimmelzwaan GF, Fouchier RA, Osterhaus AD. Influenza virus: a master of metamorphosis. J Infect 2000; 40: 218–28
  • Webster RG, Shortridge KF, Kawaoka Y. Influenza: interspecies transmission and emergence of new pandemics. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1997; 18: 275–9
  • Katz JM, Webster RG. Antigenic and structural characterization of multiple subpopulations of H3N2 influenza virus from an individual. Virology 1988; 165: 446–56
  • Reid AH, Fanning TG, Slemons RD, Janczewski TA, Dean J, Taubenberger JK. Relationship of pre-1918 avian influenza HA and NP sequences to subsequent avian influenza strains. Avian Dis 2003; 47(3 Suppl)921–5
  • Olsen B, Munster V, Wallensten A, Waldenstrom J, Osterhaus A, Fouchier R. Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds. Science 2006; 312: 384–8
  • Kuiken T, Holmes EC, McCauley J, Rimmelzwaan GF, Williams CS, Grenfell BT. Host species barriers to influenza virus infections. Science 2006; 312: 394–7
  • Olofsson S, Kumlin U, Dimock K, Arnberg N. Avian influenza and sialic acid receptors: more than meets the eye?. Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5: 184–8
  • Ito T, Couceiro JN, Kelm S, Baum LG, Krauss S, Castrucci MR, et al. Molecular basis for the generation in pigs of influenza A viruses with pandemic potential. J Virol 1998; 72: 7367–73
  • van Riel D, Munster VJ, de Wit E, Rimmelzwaan GF, Fouchier RA, Osterhaus AD, et al. H5N1 Virus attachment to lower respiratory tract. Science 2006; 312: 399
  • Shinya K, Hatta M, Yamada S, Takada A, Watanabe S, Halfmann P, et al. Characterization of a human H5N1 influenza A virus isolated in 2003. J Virol 2005; 79: 9926–32
  • Matrosovich MN, Matrosovich TY, Gray T, Roberts NA, Klenk HD. Human and avian influenza viruses target different cell types in cultures of human airway epithelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101: 4620–4
  • Fouchier RA, Schneeberger PM, Rozendaal FW, Broekman JM, Kemink SA, Munster V, et al. Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101: 1356–61
  • Beigel JH, Farrar J, Han AM, Hayden FG, Hyer R, de Jong MD, et al. Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1374–85
  • Scholtissek C, Burger H, Kistner O, Shortridge KF. The nucleoprotein as a possible major factor in determining host specificity of influenza H3N2 viruses. Virology 1985; 147: 287–94
  • Kim JA, Ryu SY, Seo SH. Cells in the respiratory and intestinal tracts of chickens have different proportions of both human and avian influenza virus receptors. J Microbiol 2005; 43: 366–9
  • Gambaryan A, Yamnikova S, Lvov D, Tuzikov A, Chinarev A, Pazynina G, et al. Receptor specificity of influenza viruses from birds and mammals: new data on involvement of the inner fragments of the carbohydrate chain. Virology 2005; 334: 276–83
  • Baigent SJ, McCauley JW. Influenza type A in humans, mammals and birds: determinants of virus virulence, host-range and interspecies transmission. Bioessays 2003; 25: 657–71
  • Subbarao EK, London W, Murphy BR. A single amino acid in the PB2 gene of influenza A virus is a determinant of host range. J Virol 1993; 67: 1761–4
  • Massin P, van der Werf S, Naffakh N. Residue 627 of PB2 is a determinant of cold sensitivity in RNA replication of avian influenza viruses. J Virol 2001; 75: 5398–404
  • Hatta M, Gao P, Halfmann P, Kawaoka Y. Molecular basis for high virulence of Hong Kong H5N1 influenza A viruses. Science 2001; 293: 1840–2
  • Geiss GK, Salvatore M, Tumpey TM, Carter VS, Wang X, Basler CF, et al. Cellular transcriptional profiling in influenza A virus-infected lung epithelial cells: the role of the nonstructural NS1 protein in the evasion of the host innate defense and its potential contribution to pandemic influenza. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99: 10736–41
  • Banks J, Speidel ES, Moore E, Plowright L, Piccirillo A, Capua I, et al. Changes in the haemagglutinin and the neuraminidase genes prior to the emergence of highly pathogenic H7N1 avian influenza viruses in Italy. Arch Virol 2001; 146: 963–73
  • Wood GW, McCauley JW, Bashiruddin JB, Alexander DJ. Deduced amino acid sequences at the haemagglutinin cleavage site of avian influenza A viruses of H5 and H7 subtypes. Arch Virol 1993; 130: 209–17
  • Stallknecht DE, Shane SM, Kearney MT, Zwank PJ. Persistence of avian influenza viruses in water. Avian Dis 1990; 34: 406–11
  • Webster RG, Yakhno M, Hinshaw VS, Bean WJ, Murti KG. Intestinal influenza: replication and characterization of influenza viruses in ducks. Virology 1978; 84: 268–78
  • Stallknecht DE, Kearney MT, Shane SM, Zwank PJ. Effects of pH, temperature, and salinity on persistence of avian influenza viruses in water. Avian Dis 1990; 34: 412–18
  • Hemmes JH, Winkler KC, Kool SM. Virus survival as a seasonal factor in influenza and poliomyelitis. Nature 1960; 188: 430–1
  • Schaffer FL, Soergel ME, Straube DC. Survival of airborne influenza virus: effects of propagating host, relative humidity, and composition of spray fluids. Arch Virol 1976; 51: 263–73
  • Bean B, Moore BM, Sterner B, Peterson LR, Gerding DN, Balfour HH, Jr. Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces. J Infect Dis 1982; 146: 47–51
  • Beare AS, Webster RG. Replication of avian influenza viruses in humans. Arch Virol 1991; 119: 37–42
  • Hinshaw VS, Webster RG, Naeve CW, Murphy BR. Altered tissue tropism of human-avian reassortant influenza viruses. Virology 1983; 128: 260–3
  • Katz JM. The impact of avian influenza viruses on public health. Avian Dis 2003; 47(3 Suppl)914–20
  • Shortridge KF. Pandemic influenza: a zoonosis?. Semin Respir Infect 1992; 7: 11–25
  • Lin YP, Shaw M, Gregory V, Cameron K, Lim W, Klimov A, et al. Avian-to-human transmission of H9N2 subtype influenza A viruses: relationship between H9N2 and H5N1 human isolates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97: 9654–8
  • Choi YK, Ozaki H, Webby RJ, Webster RG, Peiris JS, Poon L, et al. Continuing evolution of H9N2 influenza viruses in Southeastern China. J Virol 2004; 78: 8609–14
  • Li KS, Xu KM, Peiris JS, Poon LL, Yu KZ, Yuen KY, et al. Characterization of H9 subtype influenza viruses from the ducks of southern China: a candidate for the next influenza pandemic in humans?. J Virol 2003; 77: 6988–94
  • Hinshaw VS, Webster RG, Easterday BC, Bean WJ, Jr. Replication of avian influenza A viruses in mammals. Infect Immun 1981; 34: 354–61
  • Karasin AI, Brown IH, Carman S, Olsen CW. Isolation and characterization of H4N6 avian influenza viruses from pigs with pneumonia in Canada. J Virol 2000; 74: 9322–7
  • Karasin AI, West K, Carman S, Olsen CW. Characterization of avian H3N3 and H1N1 influenza A viruses isolated from pigs in Canada. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 4349–54
  • Guan Y, Shortridge KF, Krauss S, Li PH, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG. Emergence of avian H1N1 influenza viruses in pigs in China. J Virol 1996; 70: 8041–6
  • Schultz U, Fitch WM, Ludwig S, Mandler J, Scholtissek C. Evolution of pig influenza viruses. Virology 1991; 183: 61–73
  • Kida H, Ito T, Yasuda J, Shimizu Y, Itakura C, Shortridge KF, et al. Potential for transmission of avian influenza viruses to pigs. J Gen Virol 1994; 75(Pt 9)2183–8
  • Scholtissek C, Burger H, Bachmann PA, Hannoun C. Genetic relatedness of hemagglutinins of the H1 subtype of influenza A viruses isolated from swine and birds. Virology 1983; 129: 521–3
  • Peiris JS, Guan Y, Markwell D, Ghose P, Webster RG, Shortridge KF. Cocirculation of avian H9N2 and contemporary “human” H3N2 influenza A viruses in pigs in southeastern China: potential for genetic reassortment?. J Virol 2001; 75: 9679–86
  • Brown IH, Alexander DJ, Chakraverty P, Harris PA, Manvell RJ. Isolation of an influenza A virus of unusual subtype (H1N7) from pigs in England, and the subsequent experimental transmission from pig to pig. Vet Microbiol 1994; 39: 125–34
  • Brown IH, Harris PA, McCauley JW, Alexander DJ. Multiple genetic reassortment of avian and human influenza A viruses in European pigs, resulting in the emergence of an H1N2 virus of novel genotype. J Gen Virol 1998; 79(Pt 12)2947–55
  • Castrucci MR, Donatelli I, Sidoli L, Barigazzi G, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG. Genetic reassortment between avian and human influenza A viruses in Italian pigs. Virology 1993; 193: 503–6
  • Rota PA, Rocha EP, Harmon MW, Hinshaw VS, Sheerar MG, Kawaoka Y, et al. Laboratory characterization of a swine influenza virus isolated from a fatal case of human influenza. J Clinl Microbiol 1989; 27: 1413–16
  • Claas EC, Kawaoka Y, de Jong JC, Masurel N, Webster RG. Infection of children with avian-human reassortant influenza virus from pigs in Europe. Virology 1994; 204: 453–7
  • Oxburgh L, Klingeborn B. Cocirculation of two distinct lineages of equine influenza virus subtype H3N8. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 3005–9
  • Ozaki H, Shimizu-Nei A, Sugita S, Sugiura T, Imagawa H, Kida H. Antigenic variation among equine H3N8 influenza virus hemagglutinins. Japan J Vet Res 2001; 48: 177–86
  • Berg M, Desselberger U, Abusugra IA, Klingeborn B, Linne T. Genetic drift of equine 2 influenza A virus (H3N8), 1963–1988: analysis by oligonucleotide mapping. Vet Microbiol 1990; 22: 225–36
  • Guo Y, Wang M, Zheng GS, Li WK, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG. Seroepidemiological and molecular evidence for the presence of two H3N8 equine influenza viruses in China in 1993–94. J Gen Virol 1995; 76(Pt 8)2009–14
  • Guo Y, Wang M, Kawaoka Y, Gorman O, Ito T, Saito T, et al. Characterization of a new avian-like influenza A virus from horses in China. Virology 1992; 188: 245–55
  • Yoon KJ, Cooper VL, Schwartz KJ, Harmon KM, Kim WI, Janke BH, et al. Influenza virus infection in racing greyhounds. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 1974–6
  • Butler D. Thai dogs carry bird-flu virus, but will they spread it?. Nature 2006; 439: 773
  • Amonsin A, Payungporn S, Theamboonlers A, Thanawongnuwech R, Suradhat S, Pariyothorn N, et al. Genetic characterization of H5N1 influenza A viruses isolated from zoo tigers in Thailand. Virology 2006; 344: 480–91
  • Rimmelzwaan GF, van Riel D, Baars M, Bestebroer TM, van Amerongen G, Fouchier RA, et al. Influenza A virus (H5N1) infection in cats causes systemic disease with potential novel routes of virus spread within and between hosts. Am J Pathol 2006;168:176–83; quiz 364.
  • Anonymous. Further spread of avian influenza in Europe, detection in French farmed birds and German cat. Euro Surveill 2006;11(3): E060302.2.
  • Okazaki K, Yanagawa R, Kida H. Contact infection of mink with 5 subtypes of avian influenza virus. Brief report. Arch Virol 1983; 77: 265–9
  • Klingeborn B, Englund L, Rott R, Juntti N, Rockborn G. An avian influenza A virus killing a mammalian species – the mink. Brief report. Arch Virol 1985; 86: 347–51
  • Englund L. Influenza A Virus, H10N4, naturally pathogenic for mink (Mustela Vision). Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala 1997
  • Englund L. Studies on influenza viruses H10N4 and H10N7 of avian origin in mink. Vet Microbiol 2000; 74: 101–7
  • Englund L, Hard af Segerstad C. Two avian H10 influenza A virus strains with different pathogenicity for mink (Mustela vison). Arch Virol 1998; 143: 653–66
  • Berg M, Englund L, Abusugra IA, Klingeborn B, Linne T. Close relationship between mink influenza (H10N4) and concomitantly circulating avian influenza viruses. Arch Virol 1990; 113: 61–71
  • Reinhardt U, Scholtissek C. Comparison of the nucleoprotein genes of a chicken and a mink influenza A H 10 virus. Arch Virol 1988; 103: 139–45
  • Webster RG, Hinshaw VS, Bean WJ, Van Wyke KL, Geraci JR, St Aubin DJ, et al. Characterization of an influenza A virus from seals. Virology 1981; 113: 712–24
  • Geraci JR, St Aubin DJ, Barker IK, Webster RG, Hinshaw VS, Bean WJ, et al. Mass mortality of harbor seals: pneumonia associated with influenza A virus. Science 1982; 215: 1129–31
  • Webster RG, Geraci J, Petursson G, Skirnisson K. Conjunctivitis in human beings caused by influenza A virus of seals. N Engl J Med 1981; 304: 911
  • Hinshaw VS, Bean WJ, Webster RG, Rehg JE, Fiorelli P, Early G, et al. Are seals frequently infected with avian influenza viruses?. J Virol 1984; 51: 863–5
  • Callan RJ, Early G, Kida H, Hinshaw VS. The appearance of H3 influenza viruses in seals. J Gen Virol 1995; 76(Pt 1)199–203
  • Hinshaw VS, Bean WJ, Geraci J, Fiorelli P, Early G, Webster RG. Characterization of two influenza A viruses from a pilot whale. J Virol 1986; 58: 655–6
  • Mandler J, Gorman OT, Ludwig S, Schroeder E, Fitch WM, Webster RG, et al. Derivation of the nucleoproteins (NP) of influenza A viruses isolated from marine mammals. Virology 1990; 176: 255–61
  • Ito T, Kawaoka Y, Nomura A, Otsuki K. Receptor specificity of influenza A viruses from sea mammals correlates with lung sialyloligosaccharides in these animals. J Vet Med Sci 1999; 61: 955–8
  • Matrosovich M, Tuzikov A, Bovin N, Gambaryan A, Klimov A, Castrucci MR, et al. Early alterations of the receptor-binding properties of H1, H2, and H3 avian influenza virus hemagglutinins after their introduction into mammals. J Virol 2000; 74: 8502–12
  • Osterhaus AD, Rimmelzwaan GF, Martina BE, Bestebroer TM, Fouchier RA. Influenza B virus in seals. Science 2000; 288: 1051–3
  • Ohishi K, Kishida N, Ninomiya A, Kida H, Takada Y, Miyazaki N, et al. Antibodies to human-related H3 influenza A virus in Baikal seals (Phoca sibirica) and ringed seals (Phoca hispida) in Russia. Microbiol Immunol 2004; 48: 905–9
  • Perez DR, Webby RJ, Hoffmann E, Webster RG. Land-based birds as potential disseminators of avian mammalian reassortant influenza A viruses. Avian Dis 2003; 47(3 Suppl)1114–17
  • Suarez DL, Schultz-Cherry S. Immunology of avian influenza virus: a review. Dev Comp Immunol 2000; 24: 269–83
  • van der Goot JA, de Jong MC, Koch G, Van Boven M. Comparison of the transmission characteristics of low and high pathogenicity avian influenza A virus (H5N2). Epidemiol Infect 2003; 131: 1003–13
  • Austin FJ, Webster RG. Evidence of ortho- and paramyxoviruses in fauna from Antarctica. J Wildlife Dis 1993; 29: 568–71
  • Morgan IR, Westbury HA. Virological studies of Adelie Penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) in Antarctica. Avian Dis 1981; 25: 1019–26
  • Wallensten A, Munster VJ, Osterhaus ADME, Waldenstrom J, Bonnedahl J, Broman T, et al. Mounting evidence for the presence of influenza A virus in the avifauna of the Antarctic region. Antarctic Science 2006; 18: 353–6
  • Alexander DJ. A review of avian influenza in different bird species. Vet Microbiol 2000; 74: 3–13
  • Stallknecht DE, Shane SM. Host range of avian influenza virus in free-living birds. Vet Res Commun 1988; 12: 125–41
  • Bean WJ, Schell M, Katz J, Kawaoka Y, Naeve C, Gorman O, et al. Evolution of the H3 influenza virus hemagglutinin from human and nonhuman hosts. J Virol 1992; 66: 1129–38
  • Zhou NN, Shortridge KF, Claas EC, Krauss SL, Webster RG. Rapid evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in chickens in Hong Kong. J Virol 1999; 73: 3366–74
  • Sharp GB, Kawaoka Y, Jones DJ, Bean WJ, Pryor SP, Hinshaw V, et al. Coinfection of wild ducks by influenza A viruses: distribution patterns and biological significance. J Virol 1997; 71: 6128–35
  • Kaleta EF, Hergarten G, Yilmaz A. Avian influenza A viruses in birds – an ecological, ornithological and virological view. DTW Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr 2005; 112: 448–56
  • Arzel C, Elmberg J, Guillemain M. Ecology of spring-migrating anatidae: a review. J Ornithol 2006;(147):167–84.
  • Nathanson N. Virus perpetuation in populations: biological variables that determine persistence or eradication. Arch Virol Suppl 2005;(19):3–15.
  • Bentz P-G. Studies on some urban Mallard Anas platyrhynchos populations in Scandinavia. Part I: Causes of death, mortality and longevity among Malmö Mallards as shown by ringing recoveries. Fauna Norv Ser C Cinclus 1985;(8):44–56.
  • Donis RO, Bean WJ, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG. Distinct lineages of influenza virus H4 hemagglutinin genes in different regions of the world. Virology 1989; 169: 408–17
  • Schafer JR, Kawaoka Y, Bean WJ, Suss J, Senne D, Webster RG. Origin of the pandemic 1957 H2 influenza A virus and the persistence of its possible progenitors in the avian reservoir. Virology 1993; 194: 781–8
  • von Hoyningen-Huene V, Scholtissek C. Low genetic mixing between avian influenza viruses of different geographic regions. Arch Virol 1983; 76: 63–7
  • Hinshaw VS, Wood JM, Webster RG, Deibel R, Turner B. Circulation of influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses in waterfowl originating from two different areas of North America. Bull World Health Organ 1985; 63: 711–19
  • Makarova NV, Kaverin NV, Krauss S, Senne D, Webster RG. Transmission of Eurasian avian H2 influenza virus to shorebirds in North America. J Gen Virol 1999; 80(Pt 12)3167–71
  • Liu JH, Okazaki K, Bai GR, Shi WM, Mweene A, Kida H. Interregional transmission of the internal protein genes of H2 influenza virus in migratory ducks from North America to Eurasia. Virus Genes 2004; 29: 81–6
  • Wallensten A, Munster VJ, Elmberg J, Osterhaus AD, Fouchier RA, Olsen B. Multiple gene segment reassortment between Eurasian and American lineages of influenza A virus (H6N2) in Guillemot (Uria aalge). Arch Virol 2005; 150: 1685–92
  • Sharp GB, Kawaoka Y, Wright SM, Turner B, Hinshaw V, Webster RG. Wild ducks are the reservoir for only a limited number of influenza A subtypes. Epidemiol Infect 1993; 110: 161–76
  • Kawaoka Y, Chambers TM, Sladen WL, Webster RG. Is the gene pool of influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls different from that in wild ducks?. Virology 1988; 163: 247–50
  • Widjaja L, Krauss SL, Webby RJ, Xie T, Webster RG. Matrix gene of influenza A viruses isolated from wild aquatic birds: ecology and emergence of influenza A viruses. J Virol 2004; 78: 8771–9
  • Kida H, Yanagawa R, Matsuoka Y. Duck influenza lacking evidence of disease signs and immune response. Infect Immun 1980; 30: 547–53
  • Hinshaw VS, Webster RG, Turner B. Water-bone transmission of influenza A viruses?. Intervirology 1979; 11: 66–8
  • Ito T, Okazaki K, Kawaoka Y, Takada A, Webster RG, Kida H. Perpetuation of influenza A viruses in Alaskan waterfowl reservoirs. Arch Virol 1995; 140: 1163–72
  • Laudert E, Sivanandan V, Halvorson D. Effect of an H5N1 avian influenza virus infection on the immune system of mallard ducks. Avian Dis 1993; 37: 845–53
  • Cooley AJ, Van Campen H, Philpott MS, Easterday BC, Hinshaw VS. Pathological lesions in the lungs of ducks infected with influenza A viruses. Vet Pathol 1989; 26: 1–5
  • Perkins LE, Swayne DE. Comparative susceptibility of selected avian and mammalian species to a Hong Kong-origin H5N1 high-pathogenicity avian influenza virus. Avian Dis 2003; 47(3 Suppl)956–67
  • Alexander DJ, Allan WH, Parsons DG, Parsons G. The pathogenicity of four avian influenza viruses for fowls, turkeys and ducks. Res Vet Sci 1978; 24: 242–7
  • Kishida N, Sakoda Y, Isoda N, Matsuda K, Eto M, Sunaga Y, et al. Pathogenicity of H5 influenza viruses for ducks. Arch Virol 2005; 150: 1383–92
  • Perkins LE, Swayne DE. Susceptibility of laughing gulls (Larus atricilla) to H5N1 and H5N3 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Avian Dis 2002; 46: 877–85
  • Stallknecht DE, Senne DA, Zwank PJ, Shane SM, Kearney MT. Avian paramyxoviruses from migrating and resident ducks in coastal Louisiana. J Wildlife Dis 1991; 27: 123–8
  • Hanson BA, Swayne DE, Senne DA, Lobpries DS, Hurst J, Stallknecht DE. Avian influenza viruses and paramyxoviruses in wintering and resident ducks in Texas. J Wildlife Dis 2005; 41: 624–8
  • Krauss S, Walker D, Pryor SP, Niles L, Chenghong L, Hinshaw VS, et al. Influenza A viruses of migrating wild aquatic birds in North America. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2004; 4: 177–89
  • Wallensten A, Munster VJ, Karlsson M, Lundkvist A, Brytting M, Stervander M, et al. High prevalence of influenza A virus in ducks caught during spring migration through Sweden. Vaccine 2006; 24: 6734–5
  • Wallensten A, Munster V, Latorre-Margalef N, Brytting M, Elmberg J, Fouchier R, et al. Multi-year surveillance of influenza A virus in migratory waterfowl in Northern Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2007 [ cited 2007-03-10]; available from: http://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/3/404.htm.
  • Okazaki K, Takada A, Ito T, Imai M, Takakuwa H, Hatta M, et al. Precursor genes of future pandemic influenza viruses are perpetuated in ducks nesting in Siberia. Arch Virol 2000; 145: 885–93
  • De Marco MA, Foni GE, Campitelli L, Raffini E, Di Trani L, Delogu M, et al. Circulation of influenza viruses in wild waterfowl wintering in Italy during the 1993–99 period: evidence of virus shedding and seroconversion in wild ducks. Avian Dis 2003; 47(3 Suppl)861–6
  • De Marco MA, Foni E, Campitelli L, Raffini E, Delogu M, Donatelli I. Long-term monitoring for avian influenza viruses in wild bird species in Italy. Vet Res Commun 2003; 27(Suppl 1)107–14
  • Webster RG. Wet markets – a continuing source of severe acute respiratory syndrome and influenza?. Lancet 2004; 363: 234–6
  • Koopmans M, Wilbrink B, Conyn M, Natrop G, van der Nat H, Vennema H, et al. Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. [see comment]. Lancer 2004; 363(9409)587–93