References
- Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727–733. doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
- Rothan HA, Byrareddy SN. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J Autoimmun. 2020;109:102433. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102433.
- Cai J, Sun W, Huang J, Gamber M, Wu J, He G. Indirect virus transmission in cluster of COVID-19 cases, Wenzhou, China. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(6):1343–1345. doi:https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2606.200412.
- Walls AC, Park YJ, Tortorici MA, Wall A, McGuire AT, Veesler D. Structure, function, and antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein. Cell. 2020;181(2):281–92 e6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.058.
- Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, et al. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci. 2020;12(1):8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x.
- Ma D, Chen CB, Jhanji V, et al. Expression of SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in human primary conjunctival and pterygium cell lines and in mouse cornea. Eye (Lond). 2020;34(7):1212–1219. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-020-0939-4.
- Zhou L, Xu Z, Castiglione GM, Soiberman US, Eberhart CG, Duh EJ. ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are expressed on the human ocular surface, suggesting susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Ocul Surf. 2020;18(4):537–544. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtos.2020.06.007.
- Zhou Y, Duan C, Zeng Y, et al. Ocular findings and proportion with conjunctival SARS-COV-2 in COVID-19 patients. Ophthalmology. 2020;127(7):982–983. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2020.04.028.
- Meduri A, Oliverio GW, Mancuso G, et al. Ocular surface manifestation of COVID-19 and tear film analysis. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):20178. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77194-9.
- Emparan JPO, Sardi-Correa C, Lopez-Ulloa JA, et al. COVID-19 and the eye: how much do we really know? A best evidence review. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2020;83(3):250–261. doi:https://doi.org/10.5935/0004-2749.20200067.
- Xia J, Tong J, Liu M, Shen Y, Guo D. Evaluation of coronavirus in tears and conjunctival secretions of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):589–594. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25725.
- Arora R, Goel R, Kumar S, et al. Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 in tears of patients with moderate to severe COVID-19. Ophthalmology. 2020;128(4):494–503. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2020.08.029.
- Seah IYJ, Anderson DE, Kang AEZ, et al. Assessing viral shedding and infectivity of tears in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients. Ophthalmology. 2020;127(7):977–979. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2020.03.026.
- Akpek EK, Gottsch JD. Immune defense at the ocular surface. Eye (Lond). 2003;17(8):949–956. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.eye.6700617.
- Thiel HJ, Schumacher U. Normal flora of the human conjunctiva: examination of 135 persons of various ages. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 1994;205(6):348–357. doi:https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1045542.
- Gunduz A, Gunduz A, Cumurcu T, Seyrek A. Conjunctival flora in Behcet patients. Can J Ophthalmol J Can D’ophtalmologie. 2008;43(4):476–479. doi:https://doi.org/10.3129/i08-089.
- Sherwood DR, Rich WJ, Jacob JS, Hart RJ, Fairchild YL. Bacterial contamination of intraocular and extraocular fluids during extracapsular cataract extraction. Eye (Lond). 1989;3(Pt 3):308–312. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.1989.44.
- Lu CW, Liu XF, Jia ZF. 2019-nCoV transmission through the ocular surface must not be ignored. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):e39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30313-5.
- Oguz H, Oguz E, Karadede S, Aslan G. The antibacterial effect of topical anesthetic proparacaine on conjunctival flora. Int Ophthalmol. 1999;23(2):117–120. doi:https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026567912389.
- Moeller CT, Branco BC, Yu MC, Farah ME, Santos MA, Hofling-Lima AL. Evaluation of normal ocular bacterial flora with two different culture media. Can J Ophthalmol J Can D’ophtalmologie. 2005;40(4):448–453. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-4182(05)80004-3.
- Owji N, Zareifard A. Bacterial flora of the conjunctiva one year after dacryocystorhinostomy. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2018;25(1):35–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.4103/meajo.MEAJO_225_17.
- Saxena H, Goswami P. Bacterial and fungal flora of the normal eye. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1971;19:130–135.
- Capriotti JA, Pelletier JS, Shah M, Caivano DM, Ritterband DC. Normal ocular flora in healthy eyes from a rural population in Sierra Leone. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29(2):81–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10792-008-9196-4.
- Jensen OL, Gluud BS. Bacterial growth in the conjunctival sac and the local defense of the outer eye. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1985;173:80–82. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-3768.1985.tb06849.x.
- Hara T, Hoshi N, Hara T. Changes in bacterial strains before and after cataract surgery. Ophthalmology. 1996;103(11):1876–1879. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(96)30413-2.
- Snyder-Perlmutter LS, Katz HR, Melia M. Effect of topical ciprofloxacin 0.3% and ofloxacin 0.3% on the reduction of bacterial flora on the human conjunctiva. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2000;26(11):1620–1625. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-3350(00)00473-9.
- Speaker MG, Menikoff JA. Prophylaxis of endophthalmitis with topical povidone-iodine. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(12):1769–1775. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(91)32052-9.
- Gunduz A, Firat M, Turkoglu G. Comparison of the simultaneous conjunctiva and oropharynx-nasopharynx swab results in patients applying to the SARS-CoV-2 outpatient clinic for the first time. J Med Virol. 2021. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26981.
- Seah I, Agrawal R. Can the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) affect the eyes? A review of coronaviruses and ocular implications in humans and animals. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2020;28(3):391–395. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09273948.2020.1738501.
- Kaya H, Caliskan A, Okul M, Sari T, Akbudak IH. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in the tears and conjunctival secretions of Coronavirus disease 2019 patients. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2020;14(9):977–981. doi:https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.13224.
- Hui KPY, Cheung MC, Perera R, et al. Tropism, replication competence, and innate immune responses of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 in human respiratory tract and conjunctiva: an analysis in ex-vivo and in-vitro cultures. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(7):687–695. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30193-4.
- Zuo T, Zhang F, Lui GCY, et al. Alterations in gut microbiota of patients with COVID-19 during time of hospitalization. Gastroenterology. 2020;159(3):944–55 e8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.048.
- Xu K, Cai H, Shen Y, et al. Management of corona virus disease-19 (COVID-19): the Zhejiang experience. Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. 2020;49(1):147–157.
- He LH, Ren LF, Li JF, Wu YN, Li X, Zhang L. Intestinal flora as a potential strategy to fight SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front Microbiol. 2020;11:1388. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.01388.
- De Caro JJ, Ta CN, Ho HK, et al. Bacterial contamination of ocular surface and needles in patients undergoing intravitreal injections. Retina. 2008;28(6):877–883. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0b013e31816b3180.
- de Kaspar HM, Chang RT, Shriver EM, et al. Three-day application of topical ofloxacin reduces the contamination rate of microsurgical knives in cataract surgery: a prospective randomized study. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(7):1352–1355.
- Ham B, Hwang HB, Jung SH, Chang S, Kang KD, Kwon MJ. Distribution and diversity of ocular microbial communities in diabetic patients compared with healthy subjects. Curr Eye Res. 2018;43(3):314–324. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02713683.2017.1406528.
- Kam JK, Cheng NM, Sarossy M, Allen PJ, Brooks AM. Nasolacrimal duct screening to minimize post-cataract surgery endophthalmitis. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2014;42(5):447–451. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/ceo.12244.
- Graham JE, Moore JE, Jiru X, et al. Ocular pathogen or commensal: a PCR-based study of surface bacterial flora in normal and dry eyes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48(12):5616–5623. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.07-0588.
- Hoshi S, Hashida M, Urabe K. Risk factors for aerobic bacterial conjunctival flora in preoperative cataract patients. Eye (Lond). 2016;30(11):1439–1446. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.2016.143.
- Yarwood JM, Schlievert PM. Quorum sensing in Staphylococcus infections. J Clin Invest. 2003;112(11):1620–1625. doi:https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI200320442.