Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: Current view on neuroendocrine aberrations

References

• Yen S S. Effects of lifestyle and body composition on the ovary. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1998; 27: 915–926
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall L A. Clinical evaluation of amenorrhea in active and athletic women. Clin Sports Med 1994; 13: 371–387
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genazzani A D, Ricchieri F, Lanzoni C, Strucchi C, Jasonni V M. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to hypothalamic amenorrhea. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1092: 103–113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schally A V, Arimura A, Baba Y, Nair R M, Matsuo H, Redding T W, Debeljuk L. Isolation and properties of the FSH and LH-releasing hormone. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1971; 43: 393–399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke I J. Control of GnRH secretion. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 1987; 34: 1–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perkins R B, Hall J E, Martin K A. Neuroendocrine abnormalities in hypothalamic amenorrhea: spectrum, stability, and response to neurotransmitter modulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 1905–1911
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genazzani A D, Gastaldi M, Volpe A, Petraglia F, Genazzani A R. Spontaneous episodic release of adenohypophyseal hormones in hypothalamic amenorrhea. Gynecol Endocrinol 1995; 9: 325–334
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berga S L, Loucks T L. Use of cognitive behavior therapy for functional hypothalamic amenorrhea. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1092: 114–129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messager S. Kisspeptin and its receptor: new gatekeepers of puberty. J Neuroendocrinol 2005; 17: 687–688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahab M, Mastronardi C, Seminara S B, Crowley W F, Ojeda S R, Plant T M. Increased hypothalamic GPR54 signaling: a potential mechanism for initiation of puberty in primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102: 2129–2134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell S H, Small C J, Dakin C L, Abbott C R, Morgan D G, Ghatei M A, Bloom S R. The central effects of orexin-A in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in vivo and in vitro in male rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2001; 13: 561–566
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robel P, Baulieu E E. Neurosteroids: biosynthesis and function. Crit Rev Neurobiol 1995; 9: 383–394
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellon S H, Deschepper C F. Neurosteroid biosynthesis: genes for adrenal steroidogenic enzymes are expressed in the brain. Brain Res 1993; 629: 283–292
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen B S. Non-genomic and genomic effects of steroids on neural activity. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1991; 12: 141–147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majewska M D, Harrison N L, Schwartz R D, Barker J L, Paul S M. Steroid hormone metabolites are barbiturate-like modulators of the GABA receptor. Science 1986; 232: 1004–1007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul S M, Purdy R H. Neuroactive steroids. FASEB J 1992; 6: 2311–2322
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belelli D, Lan N C, Gee K W. Anticonvulsant steroids and the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor–chloride ionophore complex. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1990; 14: 315–322
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadalti M, Petraglia F, Luisi S, Bernardi F, Casarosa E, Ferrari E, Luisi M, Saggese G, Genazzani A R, Bernasconi S. Changes of serum allopregnanolone levels in the first 2 years of life and during pubertal development. Pediatr Res 1999; 46: 323–327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calogero A E, Palumbo M A, Bosboom A M, Burrello N, Ferrara E, Palumbo G, Petraglia F, D'Agata R. The neuroactive steroid allopregnanolone suppresses hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone release through a mechanism mediated by the γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor. J Endocrinol 1998; 158: 121–125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brann D W, Putnam C D, Mahesh V B. γ-Aminobutyric acidA receptors mediate 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one-induced gonadotropin secretion. Endocrinology 1990; 126: 1854–1859
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genazzani A D, Petraglia F, Volpe A, Genazzani A R. Hypothalamic amenorrhea: neuroendocrine mechanisms/stress-induced anomalies. Assist Reprod Technol/Androl 1997; 9: 1–13
   Google Scholar
• Nappi R E, Petraglia F, Genazzani A D, D'Ambrogio G, Zara C, Genazzani A R. Hypothalamic amenorrhea: evidence for a central derangement of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis activity. Fertil Steril 1993; 59: 571–576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genazzani A D, Luisi M, Malavasi B, Strucchi C, Luisi S, Casarosa E, Bernardi F, Genazzani A R, Petraglia F. Pulsatile secretory characteristics of allopregnanolone, a neuroactive steroid, during the menstrual cycle and in amenorrheic subjects. Eur J Endocrinol 2002; 146: 347–356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meczekalski B, Tonetti A, Monteleone P, Bernardi F, Luisi S, Stomati M, Luisi M, Petraglia F, Genazzani A R. Hypothalamic amenorrhea with normal body weight: ACTH, allopregnanolone and cortisol responses to corticotropin-releasing hormone test. Eur J Endocrinol 2000; 142: 280–285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genazzani A D, Forti G, Guardabasso V, Maggi M, Milloni M, Cianfanelli F, Serio M. Frequency of prolactin pulsatile release in normal men and in agonadal patients is neither coupled to LH release nor influenced by androgen modulation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1992; 37: 65–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tatemoto K, Carlquist M, Mutt V. Neuropeptide Y – a novel brain peptide with structural similarities to peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide. Nature 1982; 296: 659–660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Bahh B, Balosso S, Hamilton T, Herzog H, Beck-Sickinger A G, Sperk G, Gehlert D R, Vezzani A, Colmers W F. The anti-epileptic actions of neuropeptide Y in the hippocampus are mediated by Y and not Y receptors. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 22: 1417–1430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedrazzini T, Pralong F, Grouzmann E. Neuropeptide Y: the universal soldier. Cell Mol Life Sci 2003; 60: 350–377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald J K, Koenig J I. NPY actions on reproductive and endocrine functions. The biology of NPY and related peptides, W F Colmers, C Wahlestedt. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ 1993; 419–447
   Google Scholar
• Kalra S P, Crowley W R. Neuropeptide Y: a novel neuroendocrine peptide in the control of pituitary hormone secretion, and its relation to luteinizing hormone. Front Neuroendocrinol 1992; 13: 1–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomaszuk A, Simpson C, Williams G. Neuropeptide Y, the hypothalamus and the regulation of energy homeostasis. Horm Res 1996; 46: 53–58
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahima R S. Body fat, leptin, and hypothalamic amenorrhea. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 959–962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meczekalski B, Genazzani A R, Genazzani A D, Warenik-Szymankiewicz A, Luisi M. Clinical evaluation of patients with weight loss-related amenorrhea: neuropeptide Y and luteinizing hormone pulsatility. Gynecol Endocrinol 2006; 22: 239–243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojcik-Gladysz A, Polkowska J. Neuropeptide Y – a neuromodulatory link between nutrition and reproduction at the central nervous system level. Reprod Biol 2006; 6(Suppl 2)21–28
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vale W, Spiess J, Rivier C, Rivier J. Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and β-endorphin. Science 1981; 213: 1394–1397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith R, Nicholson R C. Corticotrophin releasing hormone and the timing of birth. Front Biosci 2007; 12: 912–918
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastorakos G, Scopa C D, Vryonidou A, Friedman T C, Kattis D, Phenekos C, Merino M J, Chrousos G P. Presence of immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone in normal and polycystic human ovaries. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 79: 1191–1197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivier C, Brownstein M, Spiess J, Rivier J, Vale W. In vivo corticotropin-releasing factor-induced secretion of adrenocorticotropin, β-endorphin, and corticosterone. Endocrinology 1982; 110: 272–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petraglia F, Sutton S, Vale W, Plotsky P. Corticotropin-releasing factor decreases plasma luteinizing hormone levels in female rats by inhibiting gonadotropin-releasing hormone release into hypophysial–portal circulation. Endocrinology 1987; 120: 1083–1088
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivier C, Rivier J, Vale W. Stress-induced inhibition of reproductive functions: role of endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor. Science 1986; 231: 607–609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berga S L, Loucks-Daniels T L, Adler L J, Chrousos G P, Cameron J L, Matthews K A, Marcus M D. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone in women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182: 776–781
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berga S L, Daniels T L, Giles D E. Women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea but not other forms of anovulation display amplified cortisol concentrations. Fertil Steril 1997; 67: 1024–1030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oswiecimska J, Ziora K, Geisler G, Broll-Waśka K. Prospective evaluation of leptin and neuropeptide Y (NPY) serum levels in girls with anorexia nervosa. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2005; 26: 301–304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biller B M, Federoff H J, Koenig J I, Klibanski A. Abnormal cortisol secretion and responses to corticotropin-releasing hormone in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70: 311–317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Proenca R, Maffei M, Barone M, Leopold L, Friedman J M. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 1994; 372: 425–432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tartaglia L A, Dembski M, Weng X, Deng N, Culpepper J, Devos R, Richards G J, Campfield L A, Clark F T, Deeds J, et al. Identification and expression cloning of a leptin receptor, OB-R. Cell 1995; 83: 1263–1271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bluher S, Mantzoros C S. The role of leptin in regulating neuroendocrine function in humans. J Nutr 2004; 134: 2469S–2474S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moschos S, Chan J L, Mantzoros C S. Leptin and reproduction: a review. Fertil Steril 2002; 77: 433–444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fantuzzi G, Faggioni R. Leptin in the regulation of immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis. J Leukoc Biol 2000; 68: 437–446
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiess W, Muller G, Galler A, Reich A, Deutscher J, Klammt J, Kratzsch J. Body fat mass, leptin and puberty. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2000; 13: 717–722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Considine R V, Caro J F. Leptin: genes, concepts and clinical perspective. Horm Res 1996; 46: 249–256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iqbal J, Pompolo S, Considine R V, Clarke I J. Localization of leptin receptor-like immunoreactivity in the corticotropes, somatotropes, and gonadotropes in the ovine anterior pituitary. Endocrinology 2000; 141: 1515–1520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrico S, Gambera A, Specchia C, Pellegrini C, Falsetti L, Sartori E. Leptin in functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea. Hum Reprod 2002; 17: 2043–2048
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carro E, Pinilla L, Seoane L M, Considine R V, Aguilar E, Casanueva F F, Dieguez C. Influence of endogenous leptin tone on the estrous cycle and luteinizing hormone pulsatility in female rats. Neuroendocrinology 1997; 66: 375–377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herpertz S, Albers N, Wagner R, Pelz B, Köpp W, Mann K, Blum W F, Senf W, Hebebrand J. Longitudinal changes of circadian leptin, insulin and cortisol plasma levels and their correlation during refeeding in patients with anorexia nervosa. Eur J Endocrinol 2000; 142: 373–379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kieffer T J, Habener J F. The adipoinsular axis: effects of leptin on pancreatic beta-cells. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000; 278: E1–E14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahima R S, Saper C B, Flier J S, Elmquist J K. Leptin regulation of neuroendocrine systems. Front Neuroendocrinol 2000; 21: 263–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welt C K, Chan J L, Bullen J, Murphy R, Smith P, DePaoli A M, Karalis A, Mantzoros C S. Recombinant human leptin in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 987–997
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, Nakazato M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K. Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 1999; 402: 656–660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wynne K, Stanley S, Bloom S. The gut and regulation of body weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 2576–2582
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barreiro M L, Tena-Sempere M. Ghrelin and reproduction: a novel signal linking energy status and fertility?. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2004; 226: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gale S M, Castracane V D, Mantzoros C S. Energy homeostasis, obesity and eating disorders: recent advances in endocrinology. J Nutr 2004; 134: 295–298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korner J, Leibel R L. To eat or not to eat – how the gut talks to the brain. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 926–928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings D E, Weigle D S, Frayo R S, Breen P A, Ma M K, Dellinger E P, Purnell J Q. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1623–1630
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pagotto U, Gambineri A, Vicennati V, Heiman M L, Tschöp M, Pasquali R. Plasma ghrelin, obesity, and the polycystic ovary syndrome: correlation with insulin resistance and androgen levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 5625–5629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tena-Sempere M, Barreiro M L, Gonzalez L C, Gaytán F, Zhang F P, Caminos J E, Pinilla L, Casanueva F F, Diéguez C, Aguilar E. Novel expression and functional role of ghrelin in rat testis. Endocrinology 2002; 143: 717–725
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawamura K, Sato N, Fukuda J, Kodama H, Kumagai J, Tanikawa H, Nakamura A, Honda Y, Sato T, Tanaka T. Ghrelin inhibits the development of mouse preimplantation embryos in vitro. Endocrinology 2003; 144: 2623–2633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuta M, Funabashi T, Kimura F. Intracerebroventricular administration of ghrelin rapidly suppresses pulsatile luteinizing hormone secretion in ovariectomized rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 288: 780–785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vulliemoz N R, Xiao E, Xia-Zhang L, Germond M, Rivier J, Ferin M. Decrease in luteinizing hormone pulse frequency during a five-hour peripheral ghrelin infusion in the ovariectomized rhesus monkey. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 5718–5723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolle V, Kadem M, Bluet-Pajot M T, Frere D, Foulon C, Bossu C, Dardennes R, Mounier C, Zizzari P, Lang F, et al. Balance in ghrelin and leptin plasma levels in anorexia nervosa patients and constitutionally thin women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 109–116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider L F, Warren M P. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea is associated with elevated ghrelin and disordered eating. Fertil Steril 2006; 86: 1744–1749
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren M P, Voussoughian F, Geer E B, Hyle E P, Adberg C L, Ramos R H. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: hypoleptinemia and disordered eating. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 873–877
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Souza M J, Leidy H J, O'Donnell E, Lasley B, Williams N I. Fasting ghrelin levels in physically active women: relationship with menstrual disturbances and metabolic hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 3536–3542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan J L, Bullen J, Lee J H, Yiannakouris N, Mantzoros C S. Ghrelin levels are not regulated by recombinant leptin administration and/or three days of fasting in healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 335–343
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teschemacher H, Opheim K E, Cox B M, Goldstein A. A peptide-like substance from pituitary that acts like morphine. I. Isolation. Life Sci 1975; 16: 1771–1775
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank M S, Murphy J R. Luteinizing hormone sensitivity to naloxone in maturing male chimpanzees. Brain Res Bull 1991; 27: 241–245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remorgida V, Venturini P L, Anserini P, Salerno E, De Cecco L. Naltrexone in functional hypothalamic amenorrhea and in the normal luteal phase. Obstet Gynecol 1990; 76: 1115–1120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genazzani A D, Petraglia F, Gastaldi M, Volpogni C, Gamba O, Genazzani A R. Naltrexone treatment restores menstrual cycles in patients with weight loss-related amenorrhea. Fertil Steril 1995; 64: 951–956
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar