The timing of opportunities to prevent mass shootings: a study of mental health contacts, work and school problems, and firearms acquisition

References

• Anglemyer, A., Horvath, T., & Rutherford, G. (2014). The accessibility of firearms and risk for suicide and homicide victimization among household members: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 160(2), 101–110. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7326/M13-1301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair, J. P., & Schweit, K. W. (2014). A study of active shooter incidents in the United States between 2000 and 2013. US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation.
   Google Scholar
• Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09357620
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capellan, J. A., & Gomez, S. P. (2018). Change and stability in offender, behaviors, and incident-level characteristics of mass public shootings in the United States, 1984–2015. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 15(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, J. W., Rich, S. (2018, August 1). The gun’s not in the closet. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/local/wp/2018/08/01/feature/school-shootingsshould-parents-be-charged-for-failing-to-lock-up-guns-used-by-their-kids/?utm_term=.d0baad1d9dc3
   Google Scholar
• Dahlberg, L. L., Ikeda, R. M., & Kresnow, M. J. (2004). Guns in the home and risk of a violent death in the home: Findings from a national study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 160(10), 929–936. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwh309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duwe, G. (2020). Patterns and prevalence of lethal mass violence. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(1), 17–35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, J. A., & DeLateur, M. J. (2014). Mass shootings in America: Moving beyond Newtown. Homicide Studies, 18(1), 125–145. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767913510297
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, J. A., & Levin, J. (1994). Firing back: The growing threat of workplace homicide. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 536(1), 16–30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716294536001002
   Google Scholar
• Giffords Law Center. (2021). Mental health record reporting. https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/background-checks/mental-health-reporting/
   Google Scholar
• Greene-Colozzi, E. A., & Silva, J. R. (2020). Contextualizing firearms in mass shooting incidents: A study of guns, regulations, and outcomes. Justice Quarterly, 1–25. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2020.1818805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillard, H. (2019). An independent review of the tragic events of May 31, 2019. https://www.hillardheintze.com/threat-violence-risk-management/independent-review-of-the-may-31-virginia-beach-mass-shooting/
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, M. L., & Hughey, A. W. (2010). Workplace violence: Impact and prevention. KCA Journal, 29(1), 39–43.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klarevas, L. (2016). Rampage nation: Securing America from mass shootings. Prometheus Books.
   Google Scholar
• Krouse, W. J., & Richardson, D. J. (2015). Mass murder with firearms: Incidents and victims, 1999–2013. Congressional Research Service.
   Google Scholar
• Kruzel, J. (2019). What’s behind the dubious claim that psychiatric drugs fuel mass shootings? Politifact. https://www.politifact.com/article/2019/aug/16/whats-behind-dubious-claim-psychiatric-drugs-fuel-/
   Google Scholar
• Langman, P. (2015). School shooters: Understanding high school, college, and adult perpetrators. Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2013). A comparative analysis of suicide terrorists and rampage, workplace, and school shooters in the United States from 1990 to 2010. Homicide Studies, 17(3), 255–274. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767912462033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2015). Mass shooters in the USA, 1966–2010. Justice Quarterly, 32(2), 360–379. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2013.806675
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2016a). Fame-seeking rampage shooters: Initial findings and empirical predictions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27(1), 122–129. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.02.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2016b). Public mass shooters and firearms: A cross-national study of 171 countries. Violence and Victims, 31(2), 187–199. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A., Adkins, K. G., & Madfis, E. (2019). Are the deadliest mass shootings preventable? An assessment of leakage, information reported to law enforcement, and firearms acquisition prior to attacks in the United States. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 35(3), 315–341. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986219840231
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A., & Cowan, R. G. (2020). Has the role of mental health problems in mass shootings been significantly underestimated. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 7(3-4), 135–156. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000151
   Google Scholar
• Lankford, A., & Silver, J. (2020). Why have public mass shootings become more deadly? Criminology & Public Policy, 19(1), 37–60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12472
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemieux, F. (2014). Effect of gun culture and firearm laws on gun violence and mass shootings in the United States: A multi-level quantitative analysis. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 9(1), 74–93.
   Google Scholar
• Levin, J., & Madfis, E. (2009). Mass murder at school and cumulative strain: A sequential model. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1227–1245. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madfis, E. (2020). How to stop school rampage killing: Lessons from averted mass shootings and bombings. Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Commission. (2019). Initial report submitted to the Governor, Speaker of the House of Representatives and Senate President. http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/MSDHS/CommissionReport.pdf
   Google Scholar
• McGinty, E. E., Webster, D. W., Jarlenski, M., & Barry, C. L. (2014). News media framing of serious mental illness and gun violence in the United States, 1997–2012. American Journal of Public Health, 104(3), 406–413. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J., Guldimann, A., & James, D. (2012). The role of warning behaviors in threat assessment: An exploration and suggested typology. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 30(3), 256–279. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J., Roshdi, K., & Guldimann, A. (2014). Some warning behaviors discriminate between school shooters and other students of concern. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 1(3), 203–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000020
   Google Scholar
• Metzl, J. M., & MacLeish, K. T. (2015). Mental illness, mass shootings, and the politics of American firearms. American Journal of Public Health, 105(2), 240–249. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monahan, J., Steadman, H. J., Silver, S., Appelbaum, P. S., Robbins, P. C., Mulvey, E. P., Roth, L. H., Grisso, T., & Banks, S. (2001). Rethinking risk assessment: The MacArthur study of mental illness and violence. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, T. J., & Mattison, D. J. (2017). Adult utilization of psychiatric drugs and differences by age, sex, and race. JAMA Internal Medicine, 177(2), 274–275. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.7507
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen, P. (2004). The autogenic (self-generated) massacre. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22, 311–323. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Council for Behavioral Health. (2019). Mass violence in America: Causes, impacts, and solutions. https://www.thenationalcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Mass-Violence-in-America_8-6-19.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Threat Assessment Center. (2018). Mass attacks in public spaces - 2017. U.S. Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security.
   Google Scholar
• National Threat Assessment Center. (2019). Mass attacks in public spaces - 2018. U.S. Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, K. S., Fox, C., Roth, W., Mehta, J., & Harding, D. (2004). Rampage: The social roots of school shootings. Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• O’Hara, B., Caswell, K. (2013). Health status, health insurance, and medical services utilization: 2010. United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p70-133.pdf
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill, J. P., Miller, J. J., & Waters, J. R. (2016). Active shooter: Recommendations and analysis for risk mitigation. New York City Police Department.
   Google Scholar
• Office of the Child Advocate. (2014). Shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School. State of Connecticut. https://schoolshooters.info/sites/default/files/sandyhook11212014_0.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, J. K., & Densley, J. A. (2019). The violence project database of mass shootings in the United States, 1966–2019. The Violence Project.
   Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. (2017). America's complex relationship with guns. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/Guns-Report-for-website-pdf-6-21.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Reeping, P. M., Cerdá, M., Kalesan, B., Wiebe, D. J., Galea, S., & Branas, C. C. (2019). State gun laws, gun ownership, and mass shootings in the US: Cross sectional time series. BMJ, 364(l542), 1–6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l542
   Google Scholar
• Sarteschi, C. M. (2016). An examination of thwarted mass homicide plots and threateners. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 30(5), 88–93. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.06.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J., Elsass, H. J., & Meredith, K. (2018). Mass shootings and the media: Why all events are not created equal. Journal of Crime and Justice, 41(3), 223–243. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2017.1284689
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel, M., Goder-Reiser, M., Duwe, G., Rocque, M., Fox, J. A., & Fridel, E. E. (2020). The relation between state gun laws and the incidence and severity of mass public shootings in the United States, 1976–2018. Law and Human Behavior, 44(5), 347–360. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000378
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R. (2021). A comparative analysis of foiled and completed mass shootings. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 46(2), 187–144. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09552-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Capellan, J. A. (2019). The media’s coverage of mass public shootings in America: Fifty years of newsworthiness. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 43(1), 77–97. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2018.1437458
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Greene-Colozzi, E. A. (2019). Deconstructing an epidemic: Determining the frequency of mass gun violence. In S. Daly (Ed.), Assessing and Averting the Prevalence of Mass Violence (pp. 39–67). IGI Global.
   Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Greene-Colozzi, E. A. (2021). An exploratory study of failed mass shootings in America. Security Journal, 1–33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00281-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, J., Simons, A., & Craun, S. (2018). A study of the pre-attack behaviors of active shooters in the United States between 2000–2013. Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Swanson, J. W. (2019). Understanding the research on extreme risk protection orders: Varying results, same message. Psychiatric Services, 70(10), 953–954. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201900291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, J. W. (2021). Introduction: Violence and mental illness. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 29, 1–5. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twemlow, S. W., Fonagy, P., Sacco, F. C., O'Toole, M. E., & Vernberg, E. (2002). Premeditated mass shootings in schools: Threat assessment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(4), 475–477. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200204000-00021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vossekuil, B., Fein, R. A., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2004). The final report and findings of the safe school initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Wiebe, D. J. (2003). Homicide and suicide risks associated with firearms in the home: A national case-control study. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 41(6), 771–782. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1067/mem.2003.187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, J. Q., & Petersilia, J. (2002). Crime: Public policies for crime control. Institute for Contemporary Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Wintemute, G. J., Pear, V. A., Schleimer, J. P., Pallin, R., Sohl, S., Kravitz-Wirtz, N., & Tomsich, E. A. (2019). Extreme risk protection orders intended to prevent mass shootings: A case series. Annals of Internal Medicine, 171(9), 655–658. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-2162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodall, B. (2016). Mateen altered looks, researched anti-psychotic drugs before attack. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-florida-shooting-mateen/mateen-altered-looks-researched-anti-psychotic-drugs-before-attack-idUSKCN0Z82LH
   Google Scholar
• Yelderman, L. A., Joseph, J. J., West, M. P., & Butler, E. (2019). Mass shootings in the United States: Understanding the importance of mental health and firearm considerations. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 25(3), 212–223. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000200
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar