Motor learning in neurological rehabilitation

References

• Langhorne P, Coupar F, Pollock A. Motor recovery after stroke: a systematic review. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8(8):741–754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke D, Wissel J, Donnan GA. Pathophysiology of spasticity in stroke. Neurology. 2013;80(Issue 3, Suppl 2):S20–S26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman DS, Strick PL. Effects of a primary motor cortex lesion on step-tracking movements of the wrist. J Neurophysiol. 1995;73(2):891–895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang CE, Schieber MH. Reduced muscle selectivity during individuated finger movements in humans after damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract. J Neurophysiol. 2004;91(4):1722–1733.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewald JP, Pope PS, Given JD, et al. Abnormal muscle coactivation patterns during isometric torque generation at the elbow and shoulder in hemiparetic subjects. Brain. 1995;118(2):495–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin MF, Dimov M. Spatial zones for muscle coactivation and the control of postural stability. Brain Res. 1997;757(1):43–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamper DG, Fischer HC, Cruz EG, et al. Weakness is the primary contributor to finger impairment in chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87(9):1262–1269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hufschmidt A, Mauritz KH. Chronic transformation of muscle in spasticity: a peripheral contribution to increased tone. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1985;48(7):676–685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin MF. Interjoint coordination during pointing movements is disrupted in spastic hemiparesis. Brain. 1996;119(1):281–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomita Y, Rodrigues MRM, Levin MF. Upper limb coordination in individuals with stroke: poorly defined and poorly quantified. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2017;31(10–11):885–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayward KS, Brauer SG. Dose of arm activity training during acute and subacute rehabilitation post stroke: a systematic review of the literature. Clin Rehabil. 2015;29(12):1234–1243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lannin NA, Laver KE. The journey from research to practice: a road less travelled. Aust Occup Ther J. 2012;59(6):401–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Winters C, van Wegen EE, et al. Effects of unilateral upper limb training in two distinct prognostic groups early after stroke: the EXPLICIT-stroke randomized clinical trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2016;30(9):804–816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Stein J, Arena R, et al. Guidelines for adult stroke rehabilitation and recovery: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2016;47(6):e98–e169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Kollen BJ, van der Grond J, et al. Probability of regaining dexterity in the flaccid upper limb: impact of severity of paresis and time since onset in acute stroke. Stroke. 2003;34(9):2181–2186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson DB, Breslin M, Cumming T, et al. Go Home, Sit Less: the impact of home versus hospital rehabilitation environment on activity levels of stroke survivors. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018;99(11):2216–2221.e1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolpert DM, Kawato M. Multiple paired forward and inverse models for motor control. Neural Netw. 1998;11(7-8):1317–1329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sussillo D, Churchland MM, Kaufman MT, et al. A neural network that finds a naturalistic solution for the production of muscle activity. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18(7):1025–1033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein NA. The co-ordination and regulation of movements. Oxford (UK): Pergamon Press; 1967.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman AG, Levin MF. The origin and use of positional frames of reference in motor control. Behav Brain Sci. 1995;18(4):723–806.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latash ML. Fundamentals of motor control. New York (NY): Academic Press; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Matthews P. Mammalian muscle receptors and their central actions. Baltmore: Williams & Wilkins; 1959.
   Google Scholar
• Asatryan DG, Feldman AG. Functional tuning of the nervous system with control of movement or maintenance of a steady posture – I. Mechanographic analysis of the work of the joint during the performance of a postural task. Biophysics. 1965;10:925–935.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman AG. Referent control of action and perception: challenging conventional theories in behavioral neuroscience. New York: Springer; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Ostry DJ, Feldman AG. A critical evaluation of the force control hypothesis in motor control. Exp Brain Res. 2003;153(3):275–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman AG, Latash ML. Testing hypotheses and the advancement of science: recent attempts to falsify the equilibrium point hypothesis. Exp Brain Res. 2005;161(1):91–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lashley KS. The problem of serial order in behavior. In: Jeffress LA, editor. Cerebral mechanisms in behavior. New York (NY): Wiley; 1951. p. 112–131.
   Google Scholar
• Latash ML. The bliss (not the problem) of motor abundance (not redundancy). Exp Brain Res. 2012;217(1):1–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latash ML, Scholz JP, Schöner G. Toward a new theory of motor synergies. Motor Control. 2007;11(3):276–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin MF, Kleim JA, Wolf SL. What do motor “recovery” and “compensation” mean in patients following stroke? Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2009;23(4):313–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin MF, Weiss PL, Keshner EA. Emergence of virtual reality as a tool for upper limb rehabilitation: incorporation of motor control and motor learning principles. Phys Ther. 2015;95(3):415–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Kay DB. Translating the science into practice: shaping rehabilitation practice to enhance recovery after brain damage. Prog Brain Res. 2015;218:331–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Jones TA. Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2008;51(1):S225–S239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daly JJ, McCabe JP, Holcomb J, et al. Long-dose intensive therapy is necessary for strong, clinically significant, upper limb functional gains and retained gains in severe/moderate chronic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2019; 33(7):523–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeuchi N, Izumi S. Maladaptive plasticity for motor recovery after stroke: mechanisms and approaches. Neural Plast. 2012;2012:1–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cirstea MC, Levin MF. Compensatory strategies for reaching in stroke. Brain. 2000;123(5):940–953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebermann DG, Berman S, Weiss PL, et al. Kinematics of reaching movements in a 2-D virtual environment in adults with and without stroke. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2012;20(6):778–787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones TA. Motor compensation and its effects on neural reorganization after stroke. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2017;18(5):267–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaverdashvili M, Foroud A, Lim DH, et al. “Learned baduse” limits recovery of skilled reaching for food after forelimb motor cortex stroke in rats: a new analysis of the effect of gestures on success. Behav Brain Res. 2008;188(2):281–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaverdashvili M, Whishaw IQ. A behavioral method for identifying recovery and compensation: hand use in a preclinical stroke model using the single pellet reaching task. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;37(5):950–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allred RP, Kim SY, Jones TA. Use it and/or lose it - experience effects on brain remodeling across time after stroke. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8:379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kantak SS, Winstein CJ. Learning-performance distinction and memory processes for motor skills: a focused review and perspective. Behav Brain Res. 2012;228(1):219–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RA. A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psych Rev. 1975;82(4):225–260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell KM. Change in movement and skill: learning, retention, and transfer. In: Latash M, Turvey M, editors. Dexterity and its development. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum; 1996. p. 393–429.
   Google Scholar
• van Dijk L, van der Sluis C, Bongers RM. Reductive and emergent views on motor learning in rehabilitation practice. J Mot Behav. 2017;49(3):244–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plautz EJ, Milliken GW, Nudo RJ. Effects of repetitive motor training on movement representations in adult squirrel monkeys: role of use versus learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2000;74(1):27–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Barbay S, Nudo RJ. Functional reorganization of the rat motor cortex following motor skill learning. J Neurophysiol. 1998;80(6):3321–3325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nudo RJ, Milliken GW. Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys. J Neurophysiol. 1996;75(5):2144–2149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cirstea MC, Ptito A, Levin MF. Arm reaching improvements with short-term practice depend on the severity of the motor deficit in stroke. Exp Brain Res. 2003;152(4):476–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooke EV, Mares K, Clark A, et al. The effects of increased dose of exercise-based therapies to enhance motor recovery after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2010;8(1):60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veerbeek JM, van Wegen E, van Peppen R, et al. What is the evidence for physical therapy poststroke? A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One. 2014;9(2):e87987.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang CE, Lohse KR, Birkenmeier RL. Dose and timing in neurorehabilitation: prescribing motor therapy after stroke. Curr Op Neurol. 2015;28(6):549–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banina MC, Molad R, Solomon J, et al. Exercise intensity is increased during upper limb movement training using a virtual rehabilitation system. Proceedings 13th international conference virtual rehabilitaion. Tel Aviv, Israel: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Lohse KR, Lang CE, Boyd LA. Is more better? Using metadata to explore dose–response relationships in stroke rehabilitation. Stroke. 2014;45(7):2053–2058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers H, Bosomworth H, Krebs HI, et al. Robot assisted training for the upper limb after stroke (RATULS): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2019;394(10192):51–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang VS, Krakauer JW. Robotic neurorehabilitation: a computational motor learning perspective. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2009;6:5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maciejasz P, Eschweiler J, Gerlach-Hahn K, et al. A survey on robotic devices for upper limb rehabilitation. J NeuroEngineering Rehabil. 2014;11(1):3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacheco MM, Lafe CW, Newell KM. Search strategies in the perceptual-motor workspace and the acquisition of coordination, control and skill. Front Psych. 2019;10:1874. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3389/2Ffpsyg.2019.01874
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee TD, Wishart LR. Motor learning conundrums (and possible solutions). Quest. 2005;57(1):67–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guadagnoli MA, Lee TD. Challenge point: a framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. J Mot Behav. 2004;36(2):212–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLean N, Pound P, Wolfe C, et al. Qualitative analysis of stroke patients’ motivation for rehabilitation. BMJ. 2000;321(7268):1051–1054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosp JA, Pekanovic A, Rioult-Pedotti MS, Luft AR. Dopaminergic projections from midbrain to primary motor cortex mediate motor skill learning. J Neurosci. 2011;31(7):2481–2487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abe M, Schambra H, Wassermann EM, et al. Reward improves long-term retention of a motor memory through induction of offline memory gains. Curr Biol. 2011;21(7):557–562.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakauer JW. Motor learning: its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation. Curr Opp Neurol. 2006;19(1):84–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakauer JW, Carmichael ST. Broken movement. The neurobiology of motor recovery after stroke. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Barker RN, Gill TJ, Brauer SG. Factors contributing to upper limb recovery after stroke: a survey of stroke survivors in Queensland Australia. Disabil Rehabil. 2007;29(13):981–989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostir GV, Berges IM, Ottenbacher ME, et al. Associations between positive emotion and recovery of functional status following stroke. Psychom Med. 2008;70:404–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Conceptions of ability affect motor learning. J Motor Beh. 2009;41(5):461–467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proteau L, Blandin Y, Alain C, et al. The effects of the amount and variability of practice on the learning of a multi-segmented motor task. Acta Psychol (Amst). 1994;85(1):61–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang JF, Scholz JP, Latash ML. The role of kinematic redundancy in adaptation of reaching. Exp Brain Res. 2006;176(1):54–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell KM, Morris LR, Scully DM. Augmented information and the acquisition of a skill in physical activity. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1985;13:235–262.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lafe CW, Pacheco MM, Newell KM. Adapting relative phase of bimanual isometric force coordination through scaling visual information intermittency. Hum Mov Sci. 2016;47:186–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RA, Wrisberg CA. Motor learning and performance: a situation-based learning approach. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• van Vliet PM, Wulf G. Extrinsic feedback for motor learning after stroke: what is the evidence? Disabil Rehabil. 2006;28(13–14):831–840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramanian SK, Massie CL, Malcolm MP, et al. Does provision of extrinsic feedback result in improved motor learning in the upper limb poststroke? A systematic review of the evidence. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2010;24(2):113–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wulf G, Schmidt RA. Variability of practice and implicit motor learning. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1997;23(4):987–1006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Merians AS, Sullivan KJ. Motor learning after unilateral brain damage. Neuropsychologia. 1999;37(8):975–987.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd LA, Winstein CJ. Impact of explicit information on implicit motor-sequence learning following middle cerebral artery stroke. Phys Ther. 2003;83(11):976–989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd LA, Winstein CJ. Providing explicit information disrupts implicit motor learning after basal ganglia stroke. Learn Mem. 2004;11(4):388–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyon J, Penhune V, Ungerleider LG. Distinct contribution of the cortico-striatal and cortico-cerebellar systems to motor skill learning. Neuropsychologia. 2003;41(3):252–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cirstea CM, Ptito A, Levin MF. Feedback and cognition in arm motor skill reacquisition after stroke. Stroke. 2006;37(5):1237–1242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cirstea MC, Levin MF. Improvement of arm movement patterns and endpoint control depends on type of feedback during practice in stroke survivors. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2007;21(5):398–411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmoni AW, Schmidt RA, Walter CB. Knowledge of results and motor learning: a review and critical reappraisal. Psych Bull. 1984;95(3):355–386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang CE, MacDonald JR, Gnip C. Counting repetitions: an observational study of outpatient therapy for people with hemiparesis post-stroke. J Neuro Phys Ther. 2007;31:3–10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lang CE, MacDonald JR, Reisman DS, et al. Observation of amounts of movement practice provided during stroke rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009;90(10):1692–1698.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burridge JH, Hughes AM. Potential for new technologies in clinical practice. Curr Op Neurol. 2010;23(6):671–677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin MF. Can virtual reality offer enriched environments for rehabilitation? Expert Rev Neurother. 2011;11(2):153–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keshner EA, Weiss PT, Geifman D, et al. Tracking the evolution of virtual reality applications to rehabilitation as a field of study. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2019;16(1):76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmigniani J, Furht B, Anisetti M, et al. Augmented reality technologies, systems and applications. Multimed Tools Appl. 2011;51(1):341–377.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehrer N, Chen Y, Duff M, et al. Exploring the bases for a mixed reality stroke rehabilitation system, part ii: design of interactive feedback for upper limb rehabilitation. J NeuroEng Rehabil. 2011;8(1):54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss PL, Kizony R, Feintuch U, et al. Virtual reality in neurorehabilitation. In: Selzer M, Clarke S, Cohen L, Duncan P, Gage F, editors. Textbook of neural repair and rehabilitation. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press. 2006. p. 182–197.
   Google Scholar
• Hondori HM, Khademi M, Dodakian L, et al. A spatial augmented reality rehab system for post-stroke hand rehabilitation. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2013;184:279–285.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thomson K, Pollock A, Bugge C, et al. Commercial gaming devices for stroke upper limb rehabilitation: a survey of current practice. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol. 2015;11(6):1–461.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levac D, Glegg S, Colquhoun H, et al. Virtual reality and active videogame-based practice, learning needs, and preferences: a cross-Canada survey of physical therapists and occupational therapists. Games for Health J. 2017;6(4):217–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laver KE, George S, Thomas S, et al. Virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(2):CD008349.
   Google Scholar
• Lohse KR, Hilderman CG, Cheung KL, et al. Virtual reality therapy for adults post-stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis exploring virtual environments and commercial games in therapy. PLoS One. 2014;9(3):e93318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner I, Skouen JS, Hofstad H, et al. Is upper limb virtual reality training more intensive than conventional training for patients in the subacute phase after stroke? An analysis of treatment intensity and content. BMC Neurol. 2016;16(1):219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung K, Tunik E, Adamovitch S, et al. Neuroplasticity and virtual reality. In: Weiss PL(T), Keshner EA, Levin MF, editors. Virtual reality for physical and motor rehabilitation, virtual reality technologies for health and clinical applications. New York (NY): Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. p. 5–24.
   Google Scholar
• Piron L, Turolla A, Agostini M, et al. Motor learning principles for rehabilitation: a pilot randomized controlled study in poststroke patients. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2010;24(6):501–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proffitt R, Lange B. Considerations in the efficacy and effectiveness of virtual reality interventions for stroke rehabilitation: moving the field forward. Phys Ther. 2015;95(3):441–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merians AS, Poizner H, Boian R, et al. Sensorimotor training in a virtual reality environment: does it improve functional recovery poststroke? Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2006;20(2):252–267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamovich SV, Fluet GG, Tunik E, et al. Sensorimotor training in virtual reality: a review. NRE. 2009;25(1):29–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis GN, Rosie JA. Virtual reality games for movement rehabilitation in neurological conditions: how do we meet the needs and expectations of the users? Disab Rehabil. 2012;34(22):1880–1886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernhardt J, Borschmann K, Boyd L, et al. Moving rehabilitation research forward: developing consensus statements for rehabilitation and recovery research. Int J Stroke. 2016;11(4):454–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar