‘Sustaining masculinity’: a scoping review of anabolic androgenic steroid use by older males

References

• ACMD. (2010). Consideration of the Anabolic Steroids. Retrieved from London (UK): https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/advisory-council-on-the-misuse-of-drugs-consideration-of-the-anabolic-steroids
   Google Scholar
• Ahlgrim, C., & Guglin, M. (2009). Anabolics and cardiomyopathy in a bodybuilder: case report and literature review. Journal of Cardiac Failure, 15(6), 496–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cardfail.2008.12.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, A., Vavrenyuk, A., Fallahi, A., Lin, E., & Hsi, D. (2019). Bodybuilding gone wrong: Anabolic steroid induced cardiomyopathy. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 73(9), 2199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(19)32805-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alibegović, A. (2018). Testicular morphology in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism after the abuse of anabolic steroids. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, 14(4), 564–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-018-0015-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed, Text Revision (DSM-IVTR). American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Anawalt, B. D. (2019). Diagnosis and management of anabolic androgenic steroid use. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 104(7), 2490–2500. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-01882
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonopoulos, G. A., & Hall, A. (2016). Gain with no pain’: Anabolic-androgenic steroids trafficking in the UK. European Journal of Criminology, 13(6), 696–713. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370816633261
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arksey, H., & O'Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
   Google Scholar
• Baggish, A. L., Weiner, R. B., Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., Lu, M. T., Hoffmann, U., … Pope, H. G. Jr (2017). Cardiovascular toxicity of illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Circulation, 135(21), 1991–2002. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.026945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, G., & McVeigh, J. (2016). Image and performance enhancing drugs 2015 survey results. Centre for public health.
   Google Scholar
• Bates, G., Tod, D., Leavey, C., & McVeigh, J. (2019). An evidence-based socioecological framework to understand men’s use of anabolic androgenic steroids and inform interventions in this area. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 26(6), 484–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2018.1488947
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, G., Van Hout, M. C., Tay Wee Teck, J., & McVeigh, J. (2019). Treatments for people who use anabolic androgenic steroids: a scoping review. Harm Reduction Journal, 16(1), 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-019-0343-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begley, E., McVeigh, J., Hope, V. D., Bates, G., Glass, R., Campbell, J., … Smith, J. (2017). Image and performance enhancing drugs: 2016 national survey results. Liverpool.
   Google Scholar
• Bhasin, S., Cunningham, G. R., Hayes, F. J., Matsumoto, A. M., Snyder, P. J., Swerdloff, R. S., & Montori, V. M. (2006). Testosterone therapy in adult men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 91(6), 1995–2010. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-2847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhasin, S., Storer, T. W., Berman, N., Callegari, C., Clevenger, B., Phillips, J., Bunnell, T. J., Tricker, R., Shirazi, A., & Casaburi, R. (1996). The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. The New England Journal of Medicine, 335(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1056/Nejm199607043350101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjørnebekk, A., Westlye, L. T., Walhovd, K. B., Jorstad, M. L., Sundseth, O. O., & Fjell, A. M. (2019). Cognitive performance and structural brain correlates in long-term anabolic-androgenic steroid exposed and nonexposed weightlifters. Neuropsychology, 33(4), 547–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonnecaze, A. K., O'Connor, T., & Aloi, J. A. (2020). Characteristics and attitudes of men using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS): a survey of 2385 men. American Journal of Men’s Health, 14(6), 1557988320966536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988320966536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonnecaze, A. K., O'Connor, T., & Burns, C. A. (2021). Harm reduction in male patients actively using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) and Performance-Enhancing Drugs (PEDs): a review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 36(7), 2055–2064. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-021-06751-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boothroyd, L. G., Jucker, J.-L., Thornborrow, T., Jamieson, M. A., Burt, D. M., Barton, R. A., Evans, E. H., & Tovee, M. J. (2016). Television exposure predicts body size ideals in rural Nicaragua. British Journal of Psychology (London, England : 1953), 107(4), 752–767. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boregowda, K., Joels, L., Stephens, J. W., & Price, D. E. (2011). Persistent primary hypogonadism associated with anabolic steroid abuse. Fertility and Sterility, 96(1), E7–E8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.04.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt, S. D., King, L. A., & Evans-Brown, M. (2014). The new drug phenomenon. Drug Testing and Analysis, 6(7-8), 587–597. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan, R., Van Hout, M. C., & Wells, J. (2013). Heuristics of human enhancement risk: a little chemical help? International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 51(4), 212–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2013.818295
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, R., Wells, J. S., & Van Hout, M. C. (2017). The injecting use of image and performance-enhancing drugs (IPED) in the general population: a systematic review. Health & Social Care in the Community, 25(5), 1459–1531. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan, R., Wells, J. S., & Van Hout, M. C. (2018). “Raw juicing” – an online study of the home manufacture of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) for injection in contemporary performance and image enhancement (PIED) culture. Performance Enhancement & Health, 6(1), 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2017.11.001
   Google Scholar
• Cabb, E., Baltar, S., Powers, D. W., Mohan, K., Martinez, A., & Pitts, E. (2016). The diagnosis and manifestations of liver injury secondary to off-label androgenic anabolic steroid use. Case Reports in Gastroenterology, 10(2), 499–505. https://doi.org/10.1159/000448883
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Calogero, R. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2010). Gender and body image. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology: Volume 2: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology. (pp. 153–184). Springer New York.
   Google Scholar
• Carrasco, D., Prieto, M., Pallardo, L., Moll, J. L., Cruz, J. M., Munoz, C., & Berenguer, J. (1985). Multiple hepatic adenomas after long-term therapy with testosterone enanthate. Review of the literature. Journal of Hepatology, 1(6), 573–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-8278(85)80001-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casavant, M. J., & Griffith, J. R. K. (2017). Anabolic steroid use disorder. New Jersey.
   Google Scholar
• Chandler, M., & McVeigh, J. (2014). Steroids and image enhancing drugs; 2013 survey results. Center for Public Health.
   Google Scholar
• Christiansen, A. V., Vinther, A. S., & Liokaftos, D. (2016). Outline of a typology of men’s use of anabolic androgenic steroids in fitness and strength training environments. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 24(3), 295–305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J., Collins, R., Darkes, J., & Gwartney, D. (2007). A league of their own: demographics, motivations and patterns of use of 1,955 male adult non-medical anabolic steroid users in the United States. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 4(12), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-4-12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colburn, S., Childers, W. K., Chacon, A., Swailes, A., Ahmed, F. M., & Sahi, R. (2017). The cost of seeking an edge: recurrent renal infarction in setting of recreational use of anabolic steroids. Annals of Medicine and Surgery (2012), 14, 25–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2017.01.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coomber, R., Pavlidis, A., Hanley Santos, G., Wilde, M., Schmidt, W., & Redshaw, C. (2014). The supply of steroids and other performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs) in one English city: Fakes, counterfeits, supplier trust, common beliefs and access. Performance Enhancement & Health, 3(3-4), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.10.004
   Google Scholar
• Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: a theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 50(10), 1385–1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cranswick, I., Richardson, D., Littlewood, M., & Tod, D. (2020). “Oh take some man-up pills”: A life-history study of muscles, masculinity, and the threat of injury. Performance Enhancement & Health, 8(2-3), 100176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2020.100176
   Google Scholar
• Creagh, T. M., Rubin, A., & Evans, D. J. (1988). Hepatic tumours induced by anabolic steroids in an athlete. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 41(4), 441–443. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.41.4.441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darke, S., Torok, M., & Duflou, J. (2014). Sudden or unnatural deaths involving anabolic-androgenic steroids. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 59(4), 1025–1028. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daudt, H. M. L., van Mossel, C., & Scott, S. J. (2013). Enhancing the scoping study methodology: a large, inter-professional team’s experience with Arksey and O’Malley’s framework. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 13(1), 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-13-48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day, C. A., Topp, L., Iversen, J., Maher, L. N., Collaboration of Australian NSPs (2008). Blood-borne virus prevalence and risk among steroid injectors: results from the Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey. Drug and Alcohol Review, 27(5), 559–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230801956132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Souza, G. L., & Hallak, J. (2011). Anabolic steroids and male infertility: a comprehensive review. BJU International, 108(11), 1860–1865. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10131.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ding, N. S., De Cruz, P., Lim, L., Thompson, A., & Desmond, P. (2013). Androgenic-anabolic steroid drug-induced liver injury. Internal Medicine Journal, 43(2), 215–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/imj.12054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans-Brown, M., McVeigh, J., Perkins, C., & Bellis, M. A. (2012). Human enhancement drugs: the emerging challenges to public health. Retrieved from Liverpool. : North West Public Health Observatory.
   Google Scholar
• Farzam, K. (2021). Anabolic-androgenic steroids and cardiometabolic derangements. Cureus, 13(1), e12492. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.12492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisler, A., Breidthardt, T., Schmidlin, N., Hopfer, H., Dickenmann, M., König, K., & Hirt-Minkowski, P. (2018). Bile cast nephropathy: the unknown dangers of online shopping. Case Reports in Nephrology and Dialysis, 8(2), 98–102. https://doi.org/10.1159/000489771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flo, F. J., Kanu, O., Teleb, M., Chen, Y., & Siddiqui, T. (2018). Anabolic androgenic steroid-induced acute myocardial infarction with multiorgan failure. Proceedings, 31(3), 334–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2018.1460130
   Google Scholar
• Frati, P. P., Busardo, F., Cipolloni, L., De Dominicis, E., & Fineschi, V. (2015). Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) related deaths: autoptic, histopathological and toxicological findings. Current Neuropharmacology, 13(1), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X13666141210225414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gangadharamurthy, D., Pandian, N., Malhotra, S., Tahir, S., & Mukherjee, J. (2018). Anabolic androgenic steroid abuse and reversible cardiomyopathy: an emerging and under-recognized cardiovascular public health problem among fitness enthusiasts. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 71(11), A2426–2426. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(18)32967-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, M. R., Grace, F. M., Boobier, W., Hullin, D., Kicman, A., Cowan, D., Davies, B., & Baker, J. S. (2006). Homocysteine induced cardiovascular events: a consequence of long term anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40(7), 644–648. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2005.025668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenway, C. W., & Price, C. (2018). A qualitative study of the motivations for anabolic-androgenic steroid use: The role of muscle dysmorphia and self-esteem in long-term users. Performance Enhancement & Health, 6(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2018.02.002
   Google Scholar
• Griffiths, S., Henshaw, R., McKay, F. H., & Dunn, M. (2017). Post-cycle therapy for performance and image enhancing drug users: A qualitative investigation. Performance Enhancement & Health, 5(3), 103–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2016.11.002
   Google Scholar
• Griffiths, S., Murray, S. B., & Touyz, S. (2015). Extending the masculinity hypothesis: an investigation of gender role conformity, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in young heterosexual men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(1), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035958
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grogan, S. (1999). Body image: understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hakansson, A., Mickelsson, K., Wallin, C., & Berglund, M. (2012). Anabolic androgenic steroids in the general population: user characteristics and associations with substance use. European Addiction Research, 18(2), 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1159/000333037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley Santos, G., & Coomber, R. (2017). The risk environment of anabolic-androgenic steroid users in the UK: Examining motivations, practices and accounts of use. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 40, 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartgens, F., & Kuipers, H. (2004). Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes. Sports Medicine, 34(8), 513–554. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434080-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, O., Parrish, M., van Teijlingen, E., & Trenoweth, S. (2021). Libido as a motivator for starting and restarting non-prescribed anabolic androgenic steroid use among men: a mixed-methods study. Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy, 29(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2021.1882940
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauger, L. E., Westlye, L. T., Fjell, A. M., Walhovd, K. B., & Bjørnebekk, A. (2019). Structural brain characteristics of anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence in men. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 114(8), 1405–1415. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havnes, I. A., Jorstad, M. L., & Wisloff, C. (2019). Anabolic-androgenic steroid users receiving health-related information; health problems, motivations to quit and treatment desires. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 14(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-019-0206-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoberman, J. (2017). Dopers in Uniform The hidden world of police on steroids. Texas.
   Google Scholar
• Hope, V. D., McVeigh, J., Begley, E., Glass, R., Edmundson, C., Heinsbroek, E., Kean, J., Campbell, J., Whitfield, M., Morgan, G., Acreman, D., & Smith, J. (2021). Factors associated with hepatitis C and HIV testing uptake among men who inject image and performance enhancing drugs. Drug and Alcohol Review, 40(4), 586–596. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hope, V. D., McVeigh, J., Marongiu, A., Evans-Brown, M., Smith, J., Kimergård, A., Croxford, S., Beynon, C. M., Parry, J. V., Bellis, M. A., & Ncube, F. (2013). Prevalence of, and risk factors for, HIV, hepatitis B and C infections among men who inject image and performance enhancing drugs: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 3(9), e003207-e003207. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hope, V. D., McVeigh, J., Marongiu, A., Evans-Brown, M., Smith, J., Kimergård, A., Parry, J. V., & Ncube, F. (2015). Injection site infections and injuries in men who inject image- and performance-enhancing drugs: prevalence, risks factors, and healthcare seeking. Epidemiology and Infection, 143(1), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268814000727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hope, V. D., Walker Bond, V., Boardley, I., Smith, J., Campbell, J., Bates, G., Ralphs, R., Van Hout, M.-C., & McVeigh, J. (2022). Anabolic androgenic steroid use population size estimation: a first stage study utilising a Delphi exercise. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2022.2070058
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilhan, E., Demirci, D., Güvenç, T. S., & Çalik, A. N. (2010). Acute myocardial infarction and renal infarction in a bodybuilder using anabolic steroids. Turk Kardiyoloji Dernegi Arsivi, 38(4), 275–278. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-79953282539&partnerID=40&md5=82294b6296631aac49e09e09940f8a45
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ip, E. J., Barnett, M. J., Tenerowicz, M. J., & Perry, P. J. (2011). The anabolic 500 survey: characteristics of male users versus nonusers of anabolic-androgenic steroids for strength training. Pharmacotherapy, 31(8), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1592/phco.31.8.757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ip, E. J., Trinh, K., Tenerowicz, M. J., Pal, J., Lindfelt, T. A., & Perry, P. J. (2015). Characteristics and behaviors of older male anabolic steroid users. Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 28(5), 450–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0897190014527319
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kanayama, G., & Pope, H. G. J. (2018). History and epidemiology of anabolic androgens in athletes and non-athletes. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 464(C), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2017.02.039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanayama, G., Barry, S., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. J. (2006). Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 697–703. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanayama, G., Brower, K. J., Wood, R. I., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. J. (2009). Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence: an emerging disorder. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 104(12), 1966–1978. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02734.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. J. (2008). Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: A looming public health concern? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 98(1-2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.05.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., Pope, & H. G. J. (2020). Anabolic-androgenic steroid use and body image in men: a growing concern for clinicians. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 89(2), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1159/000505978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., DeLuca, J., Isaacs, S., Baggish, A., Weiner, R., Bhasin, S., & Pope, H. G. (2015). Prolonged hypogonadism in males following withdrawal from anabolic–androgenic steroids: An under‐recognized problem. Addiction, 110(5), 823–831. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12850
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanayama, G., Kean, J., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. J. (2013). Cognitive deficits in long-term anabolic-androgenic steroid users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 130(1-3), 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.11.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman, M. J., Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. J. (2019). Supraphysiologic-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid use: a risk factor for dementia? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 100, 180–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane, H. (2005). Diagnosing the male steroid user: drug use, body image and disordered masculinity. Health, 9(2), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459305050585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemp, R. (2017). Middle-aged men are taking steroids to look young – but do they know the alarming consequences? The Telegraph, 3rd April 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Khalil, H., Peters, M., Godfrey, C. M., McInerney, P., Soares, C. B., & Parker, D. (2016). An evidence-based approach to scoping reviews. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 13(2), 118–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/wvn.12144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimergard, A. (2015). A qualitative study of anabolic steroid use amongst gym users in the United Kingdom: motives, beliefs and experiences. Journal of Substance Use, 20(4), 288–294. https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2014.911977
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimergard, A., & McVeigh, J. (2014). Environments, risk and health harms: a qualitative investigation into the illicit use of anabolic steroids among people using harm reduction services in the UK. BMJ Open, 4(6), e005275–e005275. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimergard, A., Breindahl, T., Hindersson, P., & McVeigh, J. (2014). The composition of anabolic steroids from the illicit market is largely unknown: implications for clinical case reports. QJM : monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians, 107(7), 597–598. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcu101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimmel, M., Hearn, J., & Connell, R. W. (2005). Handbook of studies on men and masculinities. Sage Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Korkia, P. (1994). Anabolic steroid use in Great Britain: a study. Relay, 1(1), 10–11.
   Google Scholar
• Korkia, P., & Stimson, G. V. (1993). Anabolic Steroid Use in Great Britain: An Exploratory Investigation: Final Report to the Departments of Health for England, Scotland and Wales. Centre for Research on Drugs Health Behaviour.
   Google Scholar
• Kovac, J. R., Scovell, J., Ramasamy, R., Rajanahally, S., Coward, R. M., Smith, R. P., & Lipshultz, L. I. (2015). Men regret anabolic steroid use due to a lack of comprehension regarding the consequences on future fertility. Andrologia, 47(8), 872–878. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.12340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leit, R. A., Pope, H. G., & Gray, J. J. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: THE evolution of Playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(1), 90–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(200101)29:1<90::AID-EAT15>3.0.CO;2-F
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenehan, P., Bellis, M. A., & McVeigh, J. (1996). A study of anabolic steroid use in the North West of England. Journal of Performance Enhancing Drugs, 1(2), 57–70.
   Google Scholar
• Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O'Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: advancing the methodology. Implementation Science : IS, 5(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llamas-Velasco, M., Bianciardi Valassina, M. F., Ovejero-Merino, E., Massi, G., & Mentzel, T. (2021). Bilateral nipple enlargement as a secondary effect of anabolic drugs: a histopathological mimicker of smooth muscle hamartoma. Dermatopathology, 8(2), 103–106. https://doi.org/10.3390/dermatopathology8020016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, N., Bassi, S., Pepito, D., & Akhondi, H. (2019). Gerstmann syndrome complicating polycythemia secondary to anabolic steroid use. BMJ Case Reports, 12(6), e229004. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2018-229004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lovelock, T., Dean, A., Saran, A., & Vasudevan, T. (2021). A case of brachial artery infected aneurysm secondary to infective endocarditis from intramuscular steroid use. Indian Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, 8(3), 283–285. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijves.ijves_123_20
   Google Scholar
• Marsh, S. (2017). More middle-aged men taking steroids to look younger. The Guardian.
   Google Scholar
• Maycock, B., & Howat, P. (2005). The barriers to illegal anabolic steroid use. Drugs-Education Prevention and Policy, 12(4), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630500103622
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride, J. A., & Coward, R. M. (2016). Recovery of spermatogenesis following testosterone replacement therapy or anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Asian Journal of Andrology, 18(3), 373–380. https://doi.org/10.4103/1008-682X.173938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCullough, D., Webb, R., Enright, K. J., Lane, K. E., McVeigh, J., Stewart, C. E., & Davies, I. G. (2021). How the love of muscle can break a heart: Impact of anabolic androgenic steroids on skeletal muscle hypertrophy, metabolic and cardiovascular health. Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders, 22(2), 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-020-09616-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVeigh, J., & Begley, E. (2017). Anabolic steroids in the UK: an increasing issue for public health. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 24(3), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2016.1245713
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVeigh, J., Bates, G., & Chandler, M. (2015). Steroids and image enhancing drugs. Centre for Public Health.
   Google Scholar
• McVeigh, J., Evans-Brown, M., & Bellis, M. A. (2012). Human enhancement drugs and the pursuit of perfection. Adicciones, 24(3), 185–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVeigh, J., Hearne, E., Boardley, I. D., Bates, G., Hope, V., Ralphs, R., & Van Hout, M. C. (2021). Generating evidence on the use of Image and performance enhancing drugs in the UK: Results from a scoping review and expert consultation by the Anabolic Steroid UK network. Harm Reduction Journal, 18, 107. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-021-00550-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monaghan, L. F. (2001). Bodybuilding, drugs and risk. london. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Monaghan, L. F. (2003). Danger on the doors: Bodily risk in a demonised occupation. Health, Risk & Society, 5(1), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369857021000069814
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody, O. (2017). Middle-aged men use steroids to boost sex drive. The Times.
   Google Scholar
• Neri, M., Bello, S., Bonsignore, A., Cantatore, S., Riezzo, I., Turillazzi, E., & Fineschi, V. (2011). Anabolic androgenic steroids abuse and liver toxicity. Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, 11(5), 430–437. https://doi.org/10.2174/138955711795445916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NICE. (2017). Drug misuse prevention: targeted interventions. London.
   Google Scholar
• Niedfeldt, M. W. (2018). Anabolic steroid effect on the liver. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 17(3), 97–102. https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=29521706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussbaum, M. (2011). Creating Capabilities. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics (2020). Drug misuse in England and Wales: year ending March 2020. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/drugmisuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2020
   Google Scholar
• Patil, J. J., O'Donohoe, B., Loyden, C. F., Shanahan, D., Patil, J. J., O'Donohoe, B., … Shanahan, D. (2007). Near-fatal spontaneous hepatic rupture associated with anabolic androgenic steroid use: a case report. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41(7), 462–463. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2006.031617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, P. J., Lund, B. C., Deninger, M. J., Kutscher, E. C., & Schneider, J. (2005). Anabolic steroid use in weightlifters and bodybuilders - An internet survey of drug utilization. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine : official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 15(5), 326–330. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jsm.0000180872.22426.bb
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, M. D. J., Godfrey, C. M., Khalil, H., McInerney, P., Parker, D., & Soares, C. B. (2015). Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 13(3), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1097/xeb.0000000000000050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersson, A., Bengtsson, J., Voltaire-Carlsson, A., & Thiblin, I. (2010). Substance abusers’ motives for using anabolic androgenic steroids. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 111(1-2), 170–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G. J., & Kanayama, G. (2022). Body image disorders and anabolic steroid withdrawal hypogonadism in men. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 51(1), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2021.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G. J., Kanayama, G., Athey, A., Ryan, E., Hudson, J. I., & Baggish, A. (2014). The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: current best estimates. The American Journal on Addictions, 23(4), 371–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12118.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G. J., Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., & Kaufman, M. J. (2021). Anabolic-androgenic steroids, violence, and crime: two cases and literature review. The American Journal on Addictions, 30(5), 423–432. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.13157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G. J., Kanayama, G., Ionescu-Pioggia, M., & Hudson, J. I. (2004). Anabolic steroid users’ attitudes towards physicians. Addiction, 99(9), 1189–1194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00781.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G. J., Wood, R. I., Rogol, A., Nyberg, F., Bowers, L., & Bhasin, S. (2014). Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: an endocrine society scientific statement. Endocrine Reviews, 35(3), 341–375. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2013-1058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potts, A. (2000). “The Essence of the Hard On”: hegemonic masculinity and the cultural construction of “Erectile Dysfunction”. Men and Masculinities, 3(1), 85–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X00003001004
   Google Scholar
• Potts, A., Grace, V. M., Gavey, N., & Vares, T. (2004). “Viagra stories": challenging 'erectile dysfunction. Social Science & Medicine, 59(3), 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potts, A., Grace, V. M., Vares, T., & Gavey, N. (2006). Sex for life’? Men’s counter-stories on 'erectile dysfunction’, male sexuality and ageing. Sociology of Health & Illness, 28(3), 306–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2006.00494.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rashid, W. (2000). Testosterone abuse and affective disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 18(2), 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(99)00023-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravindran, R., Witczak, J., Bahl, S., Premawardhana, L., & Adlan, M. (2020). Myositis, rhabdomyolysis and severe hypercalcaemia in a body builder. Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism Case Reports, 2020, 20–0032. https://doi.org/10.1530/edm-20-0032
   Google Scholar
• Ricciardelli, L. A., & Williams, R. J. (2012). Beauty over the Centuries – Male. Elsevier Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, G. A., Chang, A., Poulin, M., Kwan, P., & Yoshida, E. (2011). Cholestatic jaundice, acute kidney injury and acute pancreatitis secondary to the recreational use of methandrostenolone: A case report. Journal of Medical Case Reports, 5(1), 138. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1947-5-138
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rothman, R. D., Weiner, R. B., Pope, H., Kanayama, G., Hutter, A. M., Fifer, M. A., Dec, G. W., & Baggish, A. L. (2011). Anabolic androgenic steroid induced myocardial toxicity: an evolving problem in an ageing population. Case Reports, 2011(Aug 17 1), bcr0520114280–bcr0520114280. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr.05.2011.4280
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rowe, R., Berger, I., Yaseen, B., & Copeland, J. (2017). Risk and blood-borne virus testing among men who inject image and performance enhancing drugs, Sydney, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review, 36(5), 658–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12467
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagoe, D., Andreassen, C. S., & Pallesen, S. (2014). The aetiology and trajectory of anabolic-androgenic steroid use initiation: a systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 9, 27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagoe, D., Molde, H., Andreassen, C. S., Torsheim, T., & Pallesen, S. (2014). The global epidemiology of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Annals of Epidemiology, 24(5), 383–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.01.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salinas, M., Floodgate, W., & Ralphs, R. (2019). Polydrug use and polydrug markets amongst image and performance enhancing drug users: Implications for harm reduction interventions and drug policy. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 67, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.01.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher, J., Muller, G., & Klotz, K. F. (1999). Large hepatic hematoma and intraabdominal hemorrhage associated with abuse of anabolic steroids. The New England Journal of Medicine, 340(14), 1123–1124. https://doi.org/10.1056/Nejm199904083401420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sen, A. (1993). Capability and well-being. In M. Nussbaum & A. Sen (Eds.), The Quality of Life. (pp. 30–54). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shiber, J. R. (2013). Pyomyositis due to anabolic steroid injection. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 44(1), E69–E70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2011.06.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinya, U., Miessau, J., Karbowski, P., Baram, M., Cavarocchi, N. C., & Hitoshi, H. (2013). Caution for Anabolic Androgenic Steroid use: A case report of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Respiratory Care, 58(12), e159-163–e163. https://doi.org/10.4187/respcare.02338
   Google Scholar
• Tan, R. S., & Scally, M. C. (2009). Anabolic steroid-induced hypogonadism–towards a unified hypothesis of anabolic steroid action. Medical Hypotheses, 72(6), 723–728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2008.12.042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tashiro, K., Iso, Y., Tsujiuchi, M., Sone, H., Sasai, M., Mori, H., Wakatsuki, D., Shoji, M., Sato, T., & Suzuki, H. (2021). Subacute stent thrombosis after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in a middle-aged anabolic steroid–abusing bodybuilder. JACC. Case Reports, 3(4), 537–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccas.2020.09.038
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thiblin, I., Garmo, H., Garle, M., Holmberg, L., Byberg, L., Michaelsson, K., & Gedeborg, R. (2015). Anabolic steroids and cardiovascular risk: A national population-based cohort study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 152, 87–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.04.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornborrow, T., Onwuegbusi, T., Mohamed, S., Boothroyd, L. G., & Tovée, M. J. (2020). Muscles and the media: a natural experiment across cultures in men’s body image. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 495. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O'Brien, K., Colquhoun, H., Kastner, M., Levac, D., Ng, C., Sharpe, J. P., Wilson, K., Kenny, M., Warren, R., Wilson, C., Stelfox, H. T., & Straus, S. E. (2016). A scoping review on the conduct and reporting of scoping reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 16, 15–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-016-0116-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O'Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., Moher, D., Peters, M. D. J., Horsley, T., Weeks, L., Hempel, S., Akl, E. A., Chang, C., McGowan, J., Stewart, L., Hartling, L., Aldcroft, A., Wilson, M. G., Garritty, C., … Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467–473. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood, M. (2017). Exploring the social lives of image and performance enhancing drugs: An online ethnography of the Zyzz fandom of recreational bodybuilders. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 39, 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.08.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood, M., & Olson, R. (2019). ‘Manly tears exploded from my eyes, lets feel together brahs’: Emotion and masculinity within an online body building community. Journal of Sociology, 55(1), 90–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783318766610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood, M., van de Ven, K., & Dunn, M. (2021). Testing the boundaries: Self-medicated testosterone replacement and why it is practised. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 95, 103087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van de Ven, K. (2016). ‘ Blurred lines’: Anti-doping, national policies, and the performanceand image enhancing drug (PIED) market in Belgium and TheNetherlands. Performance Enhancement & Health, 4(3-4), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2016.03.003
   Google Scholar
• van de Ven, K., Mulrooney, K. J., & McVeigh, J. (2019). Human enhancement drugs. (1 ed.) Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• van de Ven, K., Zahnow, R., McVeigh, J., & Winstock, A. (2020). The modes of administration of anabolic-androgenic steroid users (AAS): are non-injecting people who use steroids overlooked? Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 27(2), 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2019.1608910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, D. M., & Joubert, H. E. (2011). Attitudes of injecting male anabolic androgenic steroid users to media influence, health messages and gender constructs. Drugs and Alcohol Today, 11(2), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1108/17459261111174019
   Google Scholar
• Weinreb, I., Goldblum, J. R., & Rubin, B. P. (2010). Factitial soft tissue pseudotumor due to injection of anabolic steroids: a report of 3 cases in 2 patients. Human Pathology, 41(3), 452–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humpath.2009.10.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yesalis, C. E., & Bahrke, M. S. (1995). Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 19(5), 326–340. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199519050-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahnow, R., McVeigh, J., Bates, G., Hope, V. D., Kean, J., Campbell, J., & Smith, J. (2018). Identifying a typology of men who use Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS). The International Journal of Drug Policy, 55, 105–112. https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0955395918300616/1-s2.0-S0955395918300616-main.pdf?_tid=59ce28a0-d1f9-4505-b3ec-dd09b60d52a7&acdnat=1550157796_2b9651fce38b637e3f9ed0d6744983fd
   Google Scholar
• Zahnow, R., McVeigh, J., Ferris, J., & Winstock, A. (2017). Adverse effects, health service engagement, and service satisfaction Among Anabolic Androgenic Steroid users. Contemporary Drug Problems, 44(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091450917694268
   Google Scholar