243
Views
56
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Single molecule microscopy of biomembranes (Review)

, , &
Pages 17-29 | Published online: 09 Jul 2009

References

  • Albota, M., Beljonne, D. Bredas, J. L.Ehrlich, J. E.Fu, J. Y.Heikal, A. A.Hess, S. E.Kogej, T.Levin, M. D.Marder, S. R.McCord-Maughon, D.Perry, J. W.Rockel, H.Rumi, M.Subramaniam, G.Webb, W. W.Wu, X. L. and Xu, C., 1998a, Design of organic molecules with large two-photon absorption cross sections. Science, 281, 1653-1656.
  • Albota, M. A., Xu, C., and Webb, W. W., 1998b, Two-photon fluorescence excita tion cross sections of biomolecular probes from 690 to 960 nm. Applied Optics, 37, 7352–7356.
  • Allen, S., Chen, X., Davies, J., Davies, M. C., Dawkes, A. C., Edwards, J. C., Roberts, C. J., Sefton, J., Tendler, S. J. B. and Williams, P. M., 1997, Spatial mapping of specific molecular recognition sites by atomic force microscopy. Biochemistry, 36, 7457–7463.
  • Ambrose, W. P., Goodwin, P. M., Martin, J. C. and Keller, R. A., 1994a, Single molecule detection and photochemistry on a surface using near-field optical excita tion. Physics Review Letters, 72, 160–163.
  • Ambrose, W. P., Goodwin, P. M., Martin, J. C. and Keller, R. A., 1994b, Alterations of single molecule fluorescence lifetimes in near-field optical microscopy. Science, 265, 364–367.
  • Anderson, C. M., Georgiou, G. N., Morrison, I. E. G., Stevenson, G. V. W. and Cherry, R., 1992, Tracking of cell surface receptors by fluorescence digital imaging microscopy using a charge-coupled device camera. Journal of Cellular Scie nce, 101, 415 425.
  • Ashkin, A., 1997, Optical trapping and manipulation of neutral particles using lasers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Scie nce (USA), 94, 4853–4860.
  • Aubin, J. E., 1979, Autofluorescence of viable cultured mammalian cells. Journal of Histochemis try and Cytochemistry, 27, 36–43.
  • Barak, L. S. and Webb, W. W., 1981, Fluorescent low density lipoprotein for observation of dynamics of individual receptor complexes on cultured human fibroblasts. Journal of Cell Biology, 90, 595–604.
  • Benson, R. C., Meyer, R. A., Zaruba, M. E. and McKhann, G. M., 1979, Cellular autofluorescence is it due to flavins ? Journal of His tochemistry and Cytochemistry, 27, 44–48.
  • Berland, K. M., So, P. T. C., Chen, Y., Mantulin, W. W. and Gratton, E., 1996, Scanning two-photon fluctuation correlation spectro-scopy: particle counting measurements for detection of molecular aggregation. Biophysics Journal, 71, 410–420.
  • Betzig, E. and Chichester, R. J., 1993, Single molecules observed by near-field scanning optical microscopy. Science, 262, 1422 1425.
  • Betzig, E. and Trautman, J. K., 1992, Near-field optics: microscopy, spectroscopy, and surface modification beyond the diffraction limit. Science, 257, 189–195.
  • Bewersdorf, J., Pick, R. and Hell, S., 1998, Multifocal multiphoton microscopy. Optics Letters, 23, 655–657.
  • Bhawalkar, J. D., Shih, A., Pan, S. J., Liou, W. S., Swiatkiewicz, J., Reinhardt, B. A., Prassad, P. N. and Cheng, P. C., 1996, Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy from a fluor-ophore and specimen perspective. Bioimaging, 4, 168–178.
  • Bian, R. X., Dunn, R. C., Xie, X. S. and Leung, P. T., 1995, Single molecule emission characteristics in near-field microscopy. Physics Review Letters, 75, 4772–4775.
  • Binnig, G., Gerber, C., Stoll, E., Albrecht, T. R. and Quate, C. F., 1987, Atomic resolution with atomic force microscope. Euro-physics Letters, 3, 1281–1286.
  • Binnig, G., Quate, C. F. and Gerber, C., 1986, Atomic force microscope. Physics Review Letters, 56, 930–933.
  • Bobroff, N., 1986, Position measurement with a resolution and noise-limiterd instrument. Revie ws in Scientific Instrumentation, 57, 1152–1157.
  • Boland, T. and Ratner, B. D., 1995, Direct measurement of hydrogen bonding in DNA nucleotide bases by atomic force microscopy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 92, 5297–5301.
  • Bopp, M. A., Jia, Y., Li, L., Cogdell, R. J. and Hochstrasser, R. M., 1997, Fluorescence and photobleaching dynamics of single light-harvesting complexes. Proceedings of the National Aca demy of Science (USA), 94, 10630–10635.
  • Brand, L., Eggeling, C., Zander, C., Drexhage, K. H. and Seidel, C. A. M., 1997, Single-molecule identifica tion of coumarin-120 by time resolved fluorescence detection: comparison of one- and two-photon excitation in solution. Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 101, 4313–4321.
  • Braunstein, D. and Spudich, A., 1994, Structure and activation dynamics of RBL-2H3 cells observed with scanning force microscopy. Biophys ics Journal, 66, 1717–1725.
  • Brown, D. A. and Rose, J. K., 1992, Sorting of GPI-anchored proteins to glycolipid-enriched membrane subdomains during transport to the apical cell surface. Cell, 68, 533–544.
  • Bruchez Jr., M.Moronne, M.Gin, P.Weiss, S. and Alivisatos, A. P., 1998, Semiconductor nanocrystals as fluorescent biological labels. Science, 281, 2013-2016.
  • Centonze,V.E. andWhite,J.H., 1998, Multiphotonexcitationprovides optical sections from deeper within scattering specimens than confocal imaging. Biophys ics Journal, 75, 2015–2024.
  • Chan, W. C. W. and Nie, S., 1998, Quantum dot bioconjugates for ultrasensitive nonisotopic detection. Science, 281, 2016-2018.
  • Cherry, R. J., Wilson, K. M., Triantafilou, K., O’Toole, P., Morrison, I. E. G., Smith, P. R. and Fernandez, N., 1998, Detection of dimers of dimers of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR on the surface of living cells by single-particle fluorescence imaging. Journal of Cell Biology, 140, 71–79.
  • Dammer, U., Hegner, M., Anselmetti, D., Wagner, P., Dreier, M., Huber, W., Guntherodt, H.-J. and Misevic, G. N., 1996, Specific antigen/antibody interactions measured by force microscopy. Biophysics Journa l, 70, 2437–2441.
  • Deniz, A. A., Dahan, M., Grunwell, J. R., Ha, T., Faulhaber, A. E., Chemla, D. S., Weiss, S. and Schultz, P. G., 1999, Single-pair fluorescence resonance energy transfer on freely diffusing molecules: Observation of Forster distance dependence and subpopulations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 96, 3670–3675.
  • Denk, W., Piston, D. W. and Webb, W. W., 1995, Two-photon excitation in laser-scanning microscopy. In Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy, J. B. Pawley, ed. (New york: Plenum Press), pp. 445–458.
  • Denk, W., Strickler, J. H. and Webb, W. W., 1990, 2-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy. Scie nce, 248, 73–76.
  • Dickson, R. M., Norris, D. J., Tzeng, Y.-L. and Moerner, W. E., 1996, Three-dimensional imaging of single molecules solvated in pores of poly(acrylamide) gels. Science, 274, 966–969.
  • Drake, B., Prater, C. B., Weisenhorn, A. L., Gould, S. A. C., Albrecht, T. R., Quate, C. F., Cannell, D. S., Hansma, H. G. and Hansma, P. K., 1989, Imaging crystals, polymers, and processes in water with the atomic force microscope. Science, 243, 1586–1589.
  • Dunn, R. C., Holtom, G. R., Mets, L. and Xie, X. S., 1994, Near field fluorescence imaging and fluorescence lifetime measurement of light harvesting complexes in photosynthetic membranes. Journal of Physical Chemis try, 98, 3094–3098.
  • Edidin M, Kuo S. C. and Sheetz, M. P., 1991, Lateral movements of membrane glycoproteins restricted by dynamic cytoplasmic barriers. Science, 254, 1379–1382.
  • Edman, L., Mets, U. and Rigler, R., 1996, Conformational transitions monitored for single molecules in solution. Proceedings of the National Acade my of Science (USA), 93, 6710–6715.
  • E ggeling, C., Fries, J. R., Brand, L., Gunther, R. and Seidel, C. A. M., 1998b, Monitoring conformational dynamics of a single molecule by selective fluorescence spectroscopy. Proceedings of the National Acade my of Science (USA), 95, 1556–1561.
  • E ggeling, C., Widengren, J., Rigler, R. and Seidel, C. A. M., 1998a, Photobleaching of fluorescent dyes under conditions used for single-molecule detection: evidence of two-step photolysis. Analytical Chemistry, 70, 2651–2659.
  • Enderle, T., Ha, T., Chemla, D. S. andWeiss, S., 1998, Near-fieldfluo-rescence microscopy of cells. Ultramicroscopy, 71, 303–309.
  • Enderle, T., Ha, T., Ogletree, D. F., Chemla, D. S., Magowan, C. and Weiss, S., 1997, Membrane specific mapping and colocalization of malarial and host skeletal proteins in the Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocyte by dual-color near-field scanning optical microscopy. Proceedings of the National Aca demy of Science (USA), 94, 520–525.
  • Evans, E. and Ritchie, K., 1997, Dynamic strength of molecular adhesion bonds. Biophys ics Journal, 72, 1541–1555.
  • Fan, G. Y., Fujisaki, H., Miyawaki, A., Tsay, R.-K., Tsien, R. Y. and E llisman, M. H., 1999, Video-rate scanning two-photon excita -tion fluorescence microscopy and ratio imaging with cameleons. Biophysics Journal, 76, 2412–2420.
  • Fein, M., Unkeless, J., Chuang, F. Y. S., Sassaroli, M., da Costa, R., V aan anen, H. and Eisinger, J., 1993, Lateral mobility of lipid analogues and GPI-anchored proteins in supported bilayers determined by fluorescent bead tracking. Journal of Membrane Biology, 135, 83–92.
  • Florin, E. L., Moy, V. T. and Gaub, H. E., 1994, Adhesion forces betweenindividualligandreceptorpairs. Science, 264,415-417.
  • F orster, T., 1948, Zwischenmolekulare Energiewanderung und Fluoreszenz. Ann. Physik, 6, 55–75.
  • Fritz, J., Katopidis, A. G., Kolbinger, F. and Anselmetti, D., 1998, Force-mediated kinetics of single P-selectin/ligand complexes observed by atomic force microscopy. Proceedings of the Na tional Academy of Science (USA), 95, 12283–12288.
  • Funatsu, T., Harada, Y., Tokunaga, M., Saito, K. and Yanagida, T., 1995, Imaging of single fluorescent molecules and individual ATP turnovers by single myosin molecules in aqueous solution. Nature, 374, 555–559.
  • Geerts, H., De Brabander, M., Nuydens, R., Geuens, S., Moere-mans, M., De Mey, J. and Hollenbeck, P., 1987, Nanovid tracking: a new automated method for the study of mobility in living cells based on colloidal gold and video microscopy. Biophysics Journal, 52, 775–782.
  • Gelles, J., Schnapp, B. J. and Sheetz, M. P., 1988, Tracking kinesin-driven movements with nanometre-scale precision. Nature, 331, 450–454.
  • Ghosh, R. andWebb, W. W., 1994, Automateddetectionandtracking of individual and clustered cell surface low density lipoprotein receptor molecules. Biophysics Journa l, 66, 1301–1318.
  • Gingell, D., Heavens, O. S. and Mellor, J. S., 1987, General electromagnetic theory of total internal reflection fluorescence: the quantitative basis for mapping cell-substratum topography. Journal of Cell Science, 87, 677–693.
  • Goodwin, P. M., Johnson, M. E., Martin, J. C., Ambrose, W. P., Marrone, B. L., Jett, J. H. and Keller, R. A., 1993, Rapid sizing of individual fluorescently stained DNA fragments by flow cyto-metry. Nucleic Acids Research, 21, 803–806.
  • G oppert-Mayer, M., 1931, Uber Elementarakte mit zwei Quanten-sprungen. Annals of Physics, 9, 273–295.
  • Gross, D. and Webb, W. W., 1986, Molecular counting oflow-density lipoprotein particles as individuals and small clusters on cell surfaces. Biophysics Journa l, 49, 901–911.
  • Grubmuller, H., Heymann, B. and Tavan, B., 1996, Ligand binding and molecular mechanics calculation of the streptavidin-biotin rupture force. Science, 271, 997–999.
  • G uttler, F., Sepiol, J., Plakhotnik, T., Mitterdorfer, A., Renn, A. and Wild, U. P., 1993, Single molecule spectroscopy: fluorescence excitation spectra with polarized light. Journal of Luminescence, 56, 29–38.
  • Ha, T., Enderle, T., Chemla, D. S., Selvin, P. R. and Weiss, S., 1996b, Single molecule dynamics studied by polarization modulation. Physics Review Le tters, 77, 3979–3982.
  • Ha, T., Enderle, T., Chemla, D. S. and Weiss, S., 1996c, Dual-molecule spectroscopy: molecular rulers for the study of biological macromolecules. IEEE Journal of Sel.top.Q.E., 2, 1–14.
  • Ha, T., Enderle, T., Ogletree, D. F., Chemla, D. S., Selvin, P. R. and Weiss, S., 1996a, Probing the interaction between two single molecules: fluorescence resonance energy transfer between a single donor and a single acceptor. Proceedings of the Na tional Aca demy of Science (USA), 93, 6264–6268.
  • Ha, T., Glass, J., Enderle, T., Chemla, D. S. and Weiss, S., 1998, Hindered rotational diffusion and rotational jumps of single molecules. Physics Review Letters, 80, 2093–2096.
  • Ha, T., Ting, A. Y., Liang, J., Caldwell, W. B., Deniz, A. A., Chemla, D. S., Schultz, P. G. and Weiss, S., 1999, Single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy of enzyme conformational dynamics and cleavage mechanism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 96, 893–898.
  • Han, W., Lindsay, S. M. and Jing, T. A., 1996, A magnetically driven oscillating probe microscope for operation in liquid. Applied Physics Letters, 69, 1–3.
  • Harms, G. S., Sonnleitner, M., Schutz, G. J., Gruber, H. J. and Schmidt, T., 1999, Single-molecule anisotropy imaging. Biophysics Journa l, 77, 2864–2870.
  • Hell, S. W., Lindek, S. and Stelzer, E. H., 1994, Enhancing the axial resolution in the far-field light microscopy: two-photon 4-Pi confocal fluorescence microscopy. Journal of Modern Optics, 41, 675–681.
  • Hinterdorfer, P., Baumgartner, W., Gruber, H. J., Schilcher, K. and Schindler, H., 1996, Detection and localization of individual antibody-antigen recognition events by atomic force microscopy. Proceedings of the National Aca demy of Science (USA), 93, 3477–3481.
  • Hinterdorfer, P., Schilcher, K., Baumgartner, W., Gruber, H. J. and Schindler, H., 1998, A mechanistic study of the dissociation of individual antibody-antigen pairs by atomoic force microscopy. Nanobiology, 4, 39–50.
  • Huston, A. L. and Reimann, C. T., 1991, Photochemical bleaching of adsorbed rhodamine 6G as a probe of binding geometries on a fused silica surface. Chemical Physics, 149, 401–407.
  • Hwang, J., Gheber, L. A., Margolis, L. and Edidin, M., 1998, Domains in cell plasma membranes investigated by near-field scanning optical microscopy. Biophysics Journa l, 74, 2184–2190.
  • Ishijima, A., Kojima, H., Funatsu, T., Tokunaga, M., Higuchi, H., Tanaka, H. and Yanagida, T., 1998, Simultaneous observation of individual ATPase and mechanical events by a single myosin molecule during interaction with actin. Cell, 92, 161–171.
  • Jacobson, K. A., and Dietrich, C., 1999, Looking at lipid rafts? Trends in Cell Biology, 9, 87–91.
  • Jacobson, K., Sheets, E. D. and Simson, R., 1995, Revisiting the fluid mosaic model of membranes. Science, 268, 1441–1442.
  • Jenei, A., Kirsch, A. K., Subramaniam, V., Arndt-Jovin, D. J. and Jovin, T. M., 1999, Picosecond multiphoton scanning near-field optical microscopy. Biophysics Journa l, 76, 1092–1100.
  • Jia, Y., Sytnik, A., Li, L., Vladimirov, S., Cooperman, B. S. and Hochstrasser, R. M., 1997, Nonexponential kinetics of a single tRNAPhe molecule under physiological conditions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 94, 7932–7936.
  • Juskaitis, R., Wilson, T., Neil, M. A. A. and Kozubek, M., 1996, E fficient real-time confocal microscopy with white light sources. Nature, 383, 804–806.
  • Kaiser, W. and Garrett, C. G. B., 1961, Two-photon excitation in CaF2:Eu2+. Physics Review Letters, 7, 229–231.
  • Kenworthy, A. K. and Edidin, M., 1998, Distribution of a glycosylpho-sphatidylinositol-anchored protein at the apical surface of MDCK cells examined at a resolution of 5100A using imaging fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Journal of Cell Biology, 142, 69–84.
  • K onig, K., Simon, U. and Halbhuber, K. J., 1996a, 3D resolved two-photon fluorescence microscopy of living cells using a modified confocal laser scanning microscope. Cellular Molecular Biology, 42, 1181–1194.
  • K onig, K., So, P. T. C., Mantulin, W. W. and Gratton, E., 1997, Cellular response to near-infrared femtosecond laser pulses in two-photon microscopes. Optics Le tters, 22, 135–136.
  • K onig, K., So, P. T. C., Mantulin, W. W., Tromberg, B. J. and Gratton, E., 1996b, Two-photon excited lifetime imaging of the autofluorescence in cells during UVA and NIR photostress. Journal of Micros copy, 183, 197–204.
  • Kusumi, A. and Sako, Y., 1996, Cell surface organization by the membrane skeleton. Current Opinions in Cell Biology, 8, 566 574.
  • Kusumi, A., Sako, Y. and Yamamoto, M., 1993, Confined lateral diffusion of membrane receptors as studied by single particle tracking (Nanovid Microscopy). Effects of calcium-induced differentiation in cultured epithelial cells. Biophys ics Journa l, 65, 2021–2040.
  • Lal, R., Drake, B., Blumberg, D., Saner, D., Hansma, P. K. and Feinstein, S. C., 1995, Imaging neurit outgrowth and cytoske-letal reorganization with an atomic force microscope: studies on PC12 and NIH-3T3 cells in culture. American Journal of Phys iology: Cell Physiology, 269, C275–C285.
  • Le Grimellec, C., Lesniewska, E., Giocondi, M.-C., Finot, E., Vie, V. and Guodonnet, J.-P., 1998, Imaging of the surface of living cells by low-force contact-mode atomic force microscopy. Biophys ics Journal, 75, 695–703.
  • Lee, G. M., Ishihara, A. and Jacobson, K. A., 1991, Direct observation of Brownian motion of lipids in a membrane. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 88, 6274–6278.
  • Lee, G. M., Zhang, F., Ishihara, A., McNeil, C. L. and Jacobson, K. A., 1993, Unconfined lateral diffusion and an estimate of pericellular matrix viscosity revealed by measuring the mobility of gold-tagged lipids. Journal of Cell Biology, 120, 25–35.
  • Lee, G. U., Kidwell, D. A. and Colton, R. J., 1994, Sensing discrete streptavidin-biotin interactions with atomic force microscopy. Langmuir, 10, 354–357.
  • Lehenkari, P. P. and Horton, M. A., 1999, Single integrin molecule adhesion forces in intact cells measured by atomic force microscopy. Biochemistry and Biophysics Research Commu-nica tions, 259, 645–650.
  • Lu, H. P. and Xie, X. S., 1997, Single-molecule spectral fluctuations at room temperature. Nature, 385, 143–146.
  • MacDonald, A. G. and Wraight, P. C., 1995, Combined spectro-scopic and electrical recording techniques in membrane research: prospects for single channel studies. Progress in Biophys ical Molecular Biology, 63, 1–29.
  • Macklin, J. J., Trautman, J. K., Harris, T. D. and Brus, L. E., 1996, Imaging and time-resolved spectroscopy of single molecules at an interface. Science, 272, 255–258.
  • Mahajan, N. P., Linder, K., Berry, G., Gordon, G. W., Heim, R. and Herman, B., 1998, Bcl-2 and Bax interactions in mitochondria probed with green fluorescent protein and fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Nature Biotechnology, 16, 547–552.
  • Marelius, J., 1995, Autofluorescence imaging of living cells. MSc thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden.
  • Masters, B. R., So, P. T. C. and Gratton, E., 1997, Multiphoton excita tion fluorescence microscopy and spectroscopy of in vivo human skin. Biophysics Journa l, 72, 2405–2412.
  • Merkel, R., Nassoy, P., Leung, A., Ritchie, K. and Evans, E., 1999, Energy landscapes of receptor-ligand bonds explored with dynamic force spectroscopy. Nature, 397, 50–53.
  • Mertz, J., Xu, C. and Webb, W. W., 1995, Single-molecule detection by two-photon excited fluorescence. Optics Letters, 20, 2532 2534.
  • Minsky, M., 1988, Memoir on inventing the confocal scanning microscope. Scanning, 10, 128–138.
  • Moerner, W. E., 1994, Examining nanoenvironments in solids on the scaleofa single,isolatedimpuritymolecule. Science, 265,46-53.
  • Moerner, W. E. and Orrit, M., 1999, Illuminating single molecules in condensed matter. Scie nce, 283, 1670–1676.
  • Mohler, W. A. and White, J. G., 1998, Multiphoton laser scanning microscopy for four-dimensional analysis of Caenorhabidtis e lega ns embryonic development. Optics Express, 3, 325–331.
  • Muller,D.J.,Schabert,F.A.,Buldt,G.andEngel,A.,1995,Imagingpur-ple membranes inaqueous solutions atsub-nanometerresolution byatomicforce microscopy. Biophysics Journal, 68, 1681–1686.
  • Noji, H., 1998, The rotary enzyme of the cell: the rotation of F1-ATPase. Science, 282, 1844–1845.
  • Oi, V. T., Glazer, A. N. and Stryer, L., 1982, Fluorescent phycobiliprotein conjugates for analyses of cells and molecules. Journal of Cell Biology, 93, 981–986.
  • Ormo, M., Cubitt, A. B., Kallio, K., Gross, L. A., Tsien, R. Y. and Remington, S. J., 1996, Crystal structure of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein. Science, 273, 1392–1395.
  • Orrit, M. and Bernard, J., 1990, Single pentacene molecules detected by fluorescence excitation in a p-terphenyl crystal. Physics Review Letters, 65, 2716–2719.
  • Parasassi, T., Gratton, E., Yu, W. M., Wilson, P. and Levi, M., 1997, Two-photon fluorescence microscopy of laurdan generalized polarization domains in model and natural membranes. Bio-phys ics Journal, 72, 2413–2429.
  • Pawley, J. B., 1995, Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy (New York: Plenum).
  • Peck, K., Stryer, L., Glazer, A. N. and Mathies, R. A., 1989, Single-molecule fluorescence detection: autocorrelation criterion and experimental realization with phycoerythrin. Proceedings of the National Acade my of Science (USA), 86, 4087–4091.
  • Peleg, G., Lewis, A., Linial, M. and Loew, L. M., 1999, Nonlinear optical measurement of membrane potential around single molecules at selected cellular sites. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 96, 6700–6704.
  • Petran, M., Hadravsky, M., Egger, M. D. and Galambos, R., 1968, Tandem-scanning reflected light microscope. Journal of the Optics Society, 58, 661–664.
  • Plakhotnik, T., Walser, D., Pirotta, M., Renn, A. and Wild, U. P., 1996, Nonlinearspectroscopyona single quantum system: two-photon absorbtion of a single molecule. Scie nce, 271, 1703–1705.
  • Pohl, D. W., 1991, Scanning near-field microscopy. In Advances in Optical and Electron Micros copy, Vol. 12, C. J. R. Sheppard and T. Mulvey, eds (London: Academic Press), pp. 243–312.
  • Raab, A., Han,W.,Badt, D., Smith-Gill,S. J.,Lindsay,S. M.,Schindler, H. and Hinterdorfer, P., 1999, Antibody recognition imaging by force microscopy. Na ture Biotechnology, 17, 902–905.
  • Rief, M., Gautel, M., Oesterhelt, F., Fernandez, J. M. and Gaub, H. E., 1997, Reversible unfolding of individual titin immunoglobulin domains by AFM. Science, 276, 1109–1112.
  • Ros, R., Schwesinger, F., Anselmetti, D., Kubon, M., Schafer, R., Pluckthun, A. and Tiefenauer, L., 1998, Antigen binding forces of individually addressed single-chain Fv antibody molecules. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 95, 7402–7405.
  • Rosenthal, I., 1978, Photochemical stability of rhodamine 6G in solution. Optics Communica tions, 24, 164–166.
  • Ruiter, A. G. T., Veerman, J. A., Garcia-Parajo, M. F. and van Hulst, N. F., 1997, Single molecule rotational and translationa l diffusion observed by near-field scanning optical microscopy. Journal of Physical Chemis try, 101, 7318–7323.
  • Saito, K., Tokunaga, M., Iwane, A. H. and Yanagida, T., 1997, Dual-colour microscopy of single fluorophores bound to myosin interacting with fluorescently labelled actin using anti-Stokes fluorescence. Journal of Micros copy, 188, 255–263.
  • Sako, Y. and Kusumi, A., 1994, Compartmentalized structure of the plasma membrane for receptor movements as revealed by a nanometer-level motion analysis. Journal of Cell Biology, 125, 1251–1264.
  • Sako, Y. and Kusumi, A., 1995, Barriers for lateral diffusion of transferrin receptor in the plasma membrane as characterized by receptor dragging by laser tweezers: fence versus tether. Journal of Cell Biology, 129, 1559–1574.
  • Sako, Y., Nagafuchi, A., Tsukita, S., Takeichi, M. and Kusumi, A., 1998, Cytoplasmic regulation of the movement of e-cadherin on the free cell surface as studied by optical tweezers and single particle tracking: coralling and tethering by the membrane skeleton. Journal Cell Biology, 140, 1227–1240.
  • Sanchez, E. J., Novotny, L., Holtom, G. R. and Xie, X. S., 1997, Room temperature fluorescence imaging and spectroscopy of single molecules by two-photon excitation. Journal of Physica l Chemistry A, 101, 7019–7023.
  • Sanchez, E. J., Novotny, L. and Xie, X. S., 1999, Near-field fluorescence microscopy based on two-photon excitation with metal tips. Physics Review Letters, 82, 4014–4017.
  • Sandison, D. R., Williams, R. M., Wells, K. S., Strickler, J. and Webb, W. W., 1995, Quantitative fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). In Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy, J. B. Pawley, ed. (New York: Plenum Press), pp.39-53.
  • Sase, I., Miyata, H., Corrie, J. E. T., Craik, J. S. and Kinosita Jr, K., 1995, Real time imaging of single fluorophores on moving actin with an epifluorescence microscope. Biophysics Journal, 69, 323–328.
  • Sase, I., Myata, H., Ishiwata, S. and Kinosita Jr, K., 1997, Axial rotation of sliding actin filaments revealed by single-fluorophore imaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 94, 5646–5650.
  • Saxton, M. and Jacobson, K., 1997, Single-particle tracking: applications to membrane dynamics. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biom olecular Structure, 26, 373–399.
  • Schilcher, K., Hinterdorfer, P., Gruber, H. J. and Schindler, H., 1997, A non-invasive method for the tight anchoring of cells for scanning probe microscopy. Cell Biology International, 21, 769–778.
  • Schilders, S. P. and Gu, M., 1999, Three-dimensional autofluores-cence spectroscopy of rat skeletal muscle tissue under two-photon excita tion. Applied Optics, 38, 720–723.
  • Schmidt, T., Hinterdorfer, P. and Schindler, H., 1999, Microscopy for recognition of individual biomolecules. Micros copy Research and Technique, 44, 339–346.
  • Schmidt, T., Schutz, G. J., Baumgartner, W., Gruber, H. J. and Schindler, H., 1995, Characterization of photophysics and mobility of single molecules in a fluid lipid membrane. Journal of Phys ical Chemis try, 99, 17662–17668.
  • Schmidt, T., Schutz, G. J., Baumgartner, W., Gruber, H. J. and Schindler, H., 1996a, Imaging of single molecule diffusion. Proceedings of the National Acadamy of Science (USA), 93, 2926–2929.
  • Schmidt, T., Schutz, G. J., Gruber, H. J. and Schindler, H., 1996b, Local stoichiometries determined by counting individual molecules. Ana lytical Chemis try, 68, 4397–4401.
  • Schneider, W., Sritharan, K. C., Geibel, J. P., Oberleithner, H. and Jena, B. P., 1997, Surface dynamics in living arcinar cells imaged by atomic force microscopy: Identification of plasma membrane structuresinvolved in exocytosis. Proceedings of the Na tional Academy of Science (USA), 94, 316–321.
  • Schoenenberger, C.-A. and Hoh, J. H., 1994, Slowcellular dynamics in MDCK and R5 cells monitored by time-lapse atomic force microscopy. Biophysics Journa l, 67, 929–936.
  • Schutz, G. J., Gruber, H. J., Schindler, H. and Schmidt, T., 1997c, Fluorophores for single molecule microscopy. Journal of Luminescence, 72-74, 18–21.
  • Schutz, G. J., Schindler, H. and Schmidt, T., 1997a, Single-molecule microscopy on model membranes reveals anomalous diffusion. Biophysics Journal, 73, 1073–1080.
  • Schutz, G. J., Schindler, H. and Schmidt, T., 1997b, Imaging single-molecule dichroism. Optics Letters, 22, 651–653.
  • Schutz, G. J., Trabesinger, W. and Schmidt, T., 1998, Direct observation of ligand colocalization on individual receptor molecules. Biophys ics Journal, 74, 2223–2226.
  • Schutz, G. J., Kada, G., Pastushenko, V. Ph. and Schindler, H., 2000, Properties of Lipid microdomains in a muscle cell membrane visulized by single molecule microscopy. EMBO Journal, 19, 892–901
  • Shao, Z. and Yang, J., 1995, Progress in high resolution atomic force microscopy. Q. Revie ws in Biophysics, 28, 195–251.
  • Sheets, E. D., Lee, G. M., Simson, R. and Jacobson, K., 1997, Transient confinement of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-an-chored protein in the plasma membrane. Biochemistry, 36, 12449–12458.
  • Sheppard, C. J. R. and Gu, M., 1990, Image formation in two-photon fluorescence microscopy. Optik, 86, 104–106.
  • Simson, R., Sheets, E. D. and Jacobson, K., 1995, Detection of temporary lateral confinement of membrane proteins using single-particle tracking analysis. Biophys ics Journal, 69, 989 993.
  • Simson, R., Yang, B., Moore, S. E., Doherty, P., Walsh, F. S. and Jacobson, K. A., 1998, Structural mosaicism on the submicron scale in the plasma membrane. Biophysics Journal, 74, 297 309.
  • Smith, P. R., Morrison, I. E. G., Wilson, K. M., Fernandez, N. and Cherry, R. J., 1999, Anomalous diffusion of major histocompat-ibility complex class I molecules on HeLa cells determined by Single Particle Tracking. Biophysics Journa l, 76, 3331–3344.
  • So, P. T. C. and Kim, H., 1998, Two-photon deep tissue ex vivo imaging of mouse dermal and subcutaneous structures. Optics E xpress, 3, 339–350.
  • Sonnleitner, A., Schutz, G. J. and Schmidt, T., 1999, Free Brownian motion of individual lipid molecules in biomembranes. Biophysics Journal, 77, 2638–2642.
  • Sonnleitner, M., Schutz, G. J. and Schmidt, T., 1999, Imaging individual molecules by two-photon excitation. Chemical Physics Letters, 300, 221–226.
  • Soper, S. A., Nutter, H. L., Keller, R. A., Davis, L. M. and Shera, E. B., 1993, The photophysical constants of several fluorescent dyes pertaining to ultrasensitive fluorescence spectroscopy. P hotochemistry and Photobiology, 57, 972–977.
  • Svoboda, K., Denk, W., Kleinfeld, D. and Tank., D. W., 1997, In vivo dendritic calcium dynamics in neocortical pyramidal neurons. Nature, 385, 161–165.
  • Taylor, D. L. and Wang, Y.-L., 1989, Fluorescence Microscopy of living cells in culture Part B. (San Diego: Academic Press).
  • Tomishige, M., Sako, Y. and Kusumi, A., 1998, Regulation mechanism of the lateral diffusion of band 3 in erythrocyte membranes by the membrane skeleton. Journal of Cell Biology, 142, 989–1000.
  • Van den Bout, D. A., Yip, W.-T., Hu, D., Fu, D.-K., Swager, T. M. and Barbara, P. F., 1997, Discrete intensity jumps and intramolecular electronic energy transfer in the spectroscopy of single conjugated polymer molecules. Science, 277, 1074–1077.
  • van Hulst, N. F., Garcia-Parajo, M. F., Moers, M. H. P., Veerman, J.-A. and Ruiter, A. G. T., 1997, Near-field fluorescence imaging of genetic material: toward the molecular limit. Journal of S tructural Biology, 119, 222–231.
  • Vickery, S. A. and Dunn, R. C., 1999, Scanning near-filed fluorescence energy transfer microscopy. Biophys ics Journa l, 76, 1812-1818.
  • Warshaw, D. M., Hayes, E., Gaffney, D., Lauzon, A.-M., Wu, J., Kennedy, G., Trybus, K., Lowey, S. and Berger, C., 1998, Myosin conformational states determined by single fluorophore polarization. Proceedings of the National Acadamy of Science (USA), 95, 8034–8039.
  • Webb, R. H. and Dorey, C. K., 1995, The pixilated image. In Ha ndbook of biological confocal micros copy, J. B.Pawley, ed. (New York and London: Plenum Press), pp. 55–67.
  • Weiss, S., 1999, Fluorescence spectroscopy of single biomolecules. Science, 283, 1676 1683.
  • Wennmalm, S., Edman, L. and Rigler, R., 1997, Conformational fluctuations in single DNA molecules. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA), 94, 10641–10646.
  • Willemsen, O. H., Snel, M. M. E., van der Werf, K. O., de Grooth, B. G., Greve, J., Hinterdorfer, P., Gruber, H. J., Schindler, H., van Kooyk, Y. and Figdor, C. G., 1998, Simultaneous height and adhesion imaging of antibody antigen interactions by atomic force microscopy. Biophys ics Journal, 57, 2220–2228.
  • Wong, S. S., Joselevich, E., Woolley, A. T., Cheung, C. L. and Lieber, C. M., 1998, Covalently functionalyzed nanotubes as nanometre-sized probes in chemistry and biology. Na ture, 394, 52–55.
  • Xie, X. S., 1996, Single-molecule spectroscopy and dynamics at room temperature. Acc.Chemical Research, 29, 598–606.
  • Xie, X. S., and Dunn, R. C., 1994, Probing single molecule dynamics. Science, 265, 361–364.
  • Xu, C. and Webb, W. W., 1996, Measurement of two-photon excitation cross sections of molecular fluorophores with data from 690 to 1050 nm. Journal of the Optics Society of America B, 13, 481–491.
  • Xu, C., Williams, R. M., Zipfel, W. and Webb, W. W., 1996a, Multiphoton excitation cross sections of molecular fluorophores. Bioimaging, 4, 198–207.
  • Xu, C., Zipfel, W., Shear, J. B., Williams, R. M. and Webb, W. W., 1996b, Multiphoton fluorescence excitation: new spectral windows for biological nonlinear microscopy. Proceedings of the National Acade my of Scie nce (USA), 93, 10763–10768.
  • Yu, W., So, P. T. C., French, T. and Gratton, E., 1996, Fluorescence generalized polarization of cell membranes: a two-photon scanning microscopy approach. Biophys ics Journal, 70, 626 636.
  • Zhang, F., Lee, G. M. and Jacobson, K. A., 1993, Protein lateral mobility as a reflection of membrane microstructure. Bioessays, 15, 579–588.
  • Zumbusch, A., Holtom, G. R. and Xie, X. S., 1999, Three-dimensional vibrational imaging by coherent anti-stokes raman scattering. Physics Review Letters, 82, 4142–4145.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.