Parents’ Cannabis-Related Attitudes and Emerging Adult Offspring Cannabis Use: Testing the Mediating Effect of Perceived Parental Approval

References

• Abar, C. C. (2012). Examining the relationship between parenting types and patterns of student alcohol-related behavior during the transition to college. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abar, C., Abar, B., & Turrisi, R. (2009). The impact of parental modeling and permissibility on alcohol use and experienced negative drinking consequences in college. Addictive Behaviors, 34(6-7), 542–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adachi, P., & Willoughby, T. (2015). Interpreting effect sizes when controlling for stability effects in longitudinal autoregressive models: Implications for psychological science. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12(1), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2014.963549
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akers, R. L. (1977). Deviant behavior: A social learning approach (2nd ed.). Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Akers, R. L., & Cochran, J. E. (1985). Adolescent marijuana use: A test of three theories of deviant behavior. Deviant Behavior, 6(4), 323–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.1985.9967683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews, J. A., Hops, H., & Duncan, S. C. (1997). Adolescent modeling of parent substance use: The moderating effect of the relationship with the parent. Journal of Family Psychology, 11(3), 259–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.11.3.259
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnett, J. J. (2005). The developmental context of substance use in emerging adulthood. Journal of Drug Issues, 35(2), 235–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204260503500202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Guttmannova, K., Epstein, M., Abbott, R. D., Steeger, C. M., & Skinner, M. L. (2016). Associations between parental and grandparental marijuana use and child substance use norms in a prospective, three-generation study. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(3), 262–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.04.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Botzet, A. M., Dittel, C., Birkeland, R., Lee, S., Grabowski, J., & Winters, K. C. (2019). Parents as interventionists: Addressing adolescent substance use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 99, 124–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budney, A. J., Roffman, R., Stephens, R. S., & Walker, D. (2007). Marijuana dependence and its treatment. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice, 4(1), 4–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bürkner, P. C., & Vuorre, M. (2019). Ordinal regression models in psychology: A tutorial. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2(1), 77–101.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. M., & Oei, T. P. (2010). A cognitive model for the intergenerational transference of alcohol use behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 35(2), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.09.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, A. C., Brandon, K. O., & Goldman, M. S. (2010). The college and noncollege experience: A review of the factors that influence drinking behavior in young adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(5), 742–750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, X., Yu, B., Lasopa, S. O., & Cottler, L. B. (2017). Current patterns of marijuana use initiation by age among US adolescents and emerging adults: Implications for intervention. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 43(3), 261–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Colder, C. R., Read, J. P., Wieczorek, W. F., Eiden, R. D., Lengua, L. J., Hawk, L. W., Trucco, E. M., & Lopez-Vergara, H. I. (2017). Cognitive appraisals of alcohol use in early adolescence: Psychosocial predictors and reciprocal associations with alcohol use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 37(4), 525–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431615611256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor, J. P., Gullo, M. J., Feeney, G. F., & Young, R. M. (2011). Validation of the cannabis expectancy questionnaire (CEQ) in adult cannabis users in treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 115(3), 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.10.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darkes, J., & Goldman, M. S. (1993). Expectancy challenge and drinking reduction: Experimental evidence for a mediational process. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 344–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, M., Godley, S. H., Diamond, G., Tims, F. M., Babor, T., Donaldson, J., Liddle, H., Titus, J. C., Kaminer, Y., Webb, C., Hamilton, N., & Funk, R. (2004). The cannabis youth treatment (CYT) study: Main findings from two randomized trials. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 27(3), 197–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan, J. E., Molina, B. S., & Kelly, T. M. (2009). Alcohol outcome expectancies as socially shared and socialized beliefs. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23(2), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., Hops, H., & Stoolmiller, M. (1995). An analysis of the relationship between parent and adolescent marijuana use via generalized estimating equation methodology. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 30(3), 317–339. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3003_2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn, M. E., Lau, H. C., & Cruz, I. Y. (2000). Changes in activation of alcohol expectancies in memory in relation to changes in alcohol use after participation in an expectancy challenge program. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8(4), 566–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, M., Bailey, J. A., Furlong, M., Steeger, C. M., & Hill, K. G. (2020). An intergenerational investigation of the associations between parental marijuana use trajectories and child functioning. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 34(8), 830–838. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, M., Bailey, J. A., Steeger, C. M., Hill, K. G., & Skinner, M. L. (2018). Predictors of adult marijuana use among parents and nonparents. Prevention Science, 19(2), 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0801-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (1997). Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in young adults. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 92(3), 279–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb03198.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Ridder, E. M. (2005). Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms. Addiction, 100(3), 354–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01001.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster, D. W., Ecker, A. H., Zvolensky, M. J., & Buckner, J. D. (2015). Social anxiety and cannabis cravings: The influences of parent injunctive norms and tension reduction expectancies. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 34(9), 731–746. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2015.34.9.731
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster, D. W., Garey, L., Buckner, J. D., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2016). Social anxiety and cannabis-related impairment: The synergistic influences of peer and parent descriptive and injunctive normative perceptions. Substance Use & Misuse, 51(7), 912–921. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2016.1156701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galea, S., & Tracy, M. (2007). Participation rates in epidemiologic studies. Annals of Epidemiology, 17(9), 643–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.03.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossbard, J. R., Mastroleo, N. R., Kilmer, J. R., Lee, C. M., Turrisi, R., Larimer, M. E., & Ray, A. (2010). Substance use patterns among first-year college students: Secondary effects of a combined alcohol intervention. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 39(4), 384–390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handley, E. D., & Chassin, L. (2009). Intergenerational transmission of alcohol expectancies in a high-risk sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 70(5), 675–682. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2009.70.675
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayatbakhsh, M. R., Najman, J. M., Jamrozik, K., Mamun, A. A., Alati, R., & Bor, W. (2007). Cannabis and anxiety and depression in young adults: A large prospective study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(3), 408–417. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e31802dc54d
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, M., Sternberg, A., Suk, H. W., Meier, M. H., & Chassin, L. (2018). The intergenerational transmission of cannabis use: Associations between parental history of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder, low positive parenting, and offspring cannabis use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 32(1), 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, L. D., Miech, R. A., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., & Patrick, M. E. (2019). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2018: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Institute for Social Research.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. C., Nagoshi, C. T., Danko, G. P., Honbo, K. A. M., & Chau, L. L. (1990). Familial transmission of alcohol use norms and expectancies and reported alcohol use. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(2), 216–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1990.tb00475.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr, D. C., Tiberio, S. S., & Capaldi, D. M. (2015). Contextual risks linking parents' adolescent marijuana use to offspring onset. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 154, 222–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keyes, K. M., Wall, M., Cerdá, M., Schulenberg, J., O'Malley, P. M., Galea, S., Feng, T., & Hasin, D. S. (2016). How does state marijuana policy affect US youth? Medical marijuana laws, marijuana use and perceived harmfulness: 1991–2014. Addiction, 111(12), 2187–2195. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosty, D. B., Farmer, R. F., Seeley, J. R., Gau, J. M., Duncan, S. C., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2015). Parental transmission of risk for cannabis use disorders to offspring. Addiction (Abingdon, England)), 110(7), 1110–1117. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaBrie, J. W., Hummer, J. F., Lac, A., & Lee, C. M. (2010a). Direct and indirect effects of injunctive norms on marijuana use: The role of reference groups. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(6), 904–908. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2010.71.904
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaBrie, J. W., Hummer, J. F., Neighbors, C., & Larimer, M. E. (2010b). Whose opinion matters? The relationship between injunctive norms and alcohol consequences in college students. Addictive Behaviors, 35(4), 343–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachowicz, M. J., Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2018). A novel measure of effect size for mediation analysis. Psychological Methods, 23(2), 244–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madras, B. K., Han, B., Compton, W. M., Jones, C. M., Lopez, E. I., & McCance-Katz, E. F. (2019). Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse. JAMA Network Open, 2(11), e1916015. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mares, S. H., Lichtwarck‐Aschoff, A., Burk, W. J., van der Vorst, H., & Engels, R. C. (2012). Parental alcohol-specific rules and alcohol use from early adolescence to young adulthood . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 53(7), 798–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02533.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, W. A., Hanson, K., Fleming, C. B., Ringle, J. L., & Haggerty, K. P. (2015). Washington State recreational marijuana legalization: Parent and adolescent perceptions, knowledge, and discussions in a sample of low-income families. Substance Use & Misuse, 50(5), 541–545. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2014.952447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, S. M., Siegel, J. T., Hohman, Z., & Crano, W. D. (2013). Factors mediating the association of the recency of parent’s marijuana use and their adolescent children’s subsequent initiation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(3), 848–853. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, W. R., & Marlatt, G. A. (1987). The collateral interview form. Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Napper, L. E., Froidevaux, N. M., & LaBrie, J. W. (2016). Being blunt about marijuana: Parent communication about marijuana with their emerging adult children. Prevention Science, 17(7), 882–891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0681-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Napper, L. E., Hummer, J. F., Chithambo, T. P., & LaBrie, J. W. (2015). Perceived parent and peer marijuana norms: The moderating effect of parental monitoring during college. Prevention Science, 16(3), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0493-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2018). Marijuana. https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/marijuana
   Google Scholar
• Pearson, M. R. (2019). A meta-analytic investigation of the associations between cannabis use and cannabis-related negative consequences. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 33(3), 190–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson, M. R., Liese, B. S., & Dvorak, R. D, & Marijuana Outcomes Study Team. (2017). College student marijuana involvement: Perceptions, use, and consequences across 11 college campuses. Addictive Behaviors, 66, 83–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piehler, T. F., & Winters, K. C. (2015). Parental involvement in brief interventions for adolescent marijuana use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3), 512–521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Selig, J. P. (2012). Advantages of Monte Carlo confidence intervals for indirect effects. Communication Methods and Measures, 6(2), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2012.679848
   Google Scholar
• Rusby, J. C., Westling, E., Crowley, R., & Light, J. M. (2018). Legalization of recreational marijuana and community sales policy in Oregon: Impact on adolescent willingness and intent to use, parent use, and adolescent use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 32(1), 84–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, C.,Rueda, S.,Room, R.,Tyndall, M., &Fischer, B. (2018). Routes of administration for cannabis use – basic prevalence and related health outcomes: A scoping review and synthesis. International Journal of Drug Policy, 52, 87–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selig, J. P., & Preacher, K. J. (2008). Monte Carlo method for assessing mediation: An interactive tool for creating confidence intervals for indirect effects [Computer software].
   Google Scholar
• Shen, S., Locke-Wellman, J., & Hill, S. Y. (2001). Adolescent alcohol expectancies in offspring from families at high risk for developing alcoholism. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62(6), 763–772. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2001.62.763
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simons, J. S., Dvorak, R. D., Merrill, J. E., & Read, J. P. (2012). Dimensions and severity of marijuana consequences: Development and validation of the marijuana consequences questionnaire (MACQ). Addictive Behaviors, 37(5), 613–621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeerdijk, M., Keet, R., Dekker, N., van Raaij, B., Krikke, M., Koeter, M., de Haan, L., Barrowclough, C., Schippers, G., & Linszen, D. (2012). Motivational interviewing and interaction skills training for parents to change cannabis use in young adults with recent-onset schizophrenia: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 42(8), 1627–1636. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711002832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanger, C., Ryan, S. R., Scherer, E. A., Norton, G. E., & Budney, A. J. (2015). Clinic- and home-based contingency management plus parent training for adolescent cannabis use disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(6), 445–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed., New International Edition). Pearson Education Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Tucker, J. S., Ellickson, P. L., Orlando, M., Martino, S. C., & Klein, D. J. (2005). Substance use trajectories from early adolescence to emerging adulthood: A comparison of smoking, binge drinking, and marijuana use. Journal of Drug Issues, 35(2), 307–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204260503500205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vakalahi, H. F. (2001). Adolescent substance use and family-based risk and protective factors: A literature review. Journal of Drug Education, 31(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/10.2190/QP75-P9AR-NUVJ-FJCB
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winters, K. C., Lee, S., Botzet, A., Fahnhorst, T., & Nicholson, A. (2014). One-year outcomes and mediators of a brief intervention for drug abusing adolescents. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28(2), 464–474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, M. D., Read, J. P., Mitchell, R. E., & Brand, N. H. (2004). Do parents still matter? Parent and peer influences on alcohol involvement among recent high school graduates. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.18.1.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yap, M. B., Cheong, T. W., Zaravinos‐Tsakos, F., Lubman, D. I., & Jorm, A. F. (2017). Modifiable parenting factors associated with adolescent alcohol misuse: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies . Addiction (Abingdon, England), 112(7), 1142–1162. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaharakis, N. (2015). Examining the parent-adolescent bond and parent-offspring marijuana communication on marijuana use and problems: A test of primary socialization theory. https://doi.org/10.25772/5NWR-DW19
   Google Scholar
• Zeisser, C., Thompson, K., Stockwell, T., Duff, C., Chow, C., Vallance, K., Ivsins, A., Michelow, W., Marsh, D., & Lucas, P. (2012). A ‘Standard joint’? The role of quantity in predicting cannabis-related problems. Addiction Research & Theory, 20(1), 82–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., Welte, J. W., & Wieczorek, W. F. (1997). Peer and parental influences on male adolescent drinking. Substance Use & Misuse, 32(14), 2121–2136. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089709035624
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar