The Female Emergency Medical Services Experience: A Mixed Methods Study

References

• Whiteman K, Ruggiano N, Thomlison B. Transforming mental health services to address gender disparities in depression risk factors. J Women Aging. 2016;28(6):521–9. doi:10.1080/08952841.2015.1072027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faravelli C, Scarpato MA, Castellini G, Sauro CL. Gender differences in depression and anxiety: the role of age. Psychiatry Res. 2013;210(3):1301–3. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gradus J. Epidemiology of PTSD. National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (United States Department of Veteran Affairs). 2013. [Accessed 2023 June 20]. Available from: https://www.mentalhealth.va.gov/coe/cih-visn2/Documents/Provider_Education_Handouts/Epidemiology_of_PTSD_Version_3.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Zender R, Olshansky E. Women’s mental health: depression and anxiety. Nurs Clin North Am. 2009;44(3):355–64. doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2009.06.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim B, Westphal M. Mental health in first responders: a review and recommendation for prevention and intervention strategies. Traumatology. 2011;17(4):17–24. doi:10.1177/1534765611429079.
   Google Scholar
• Benedek DM, Fullerton C, Ursano RJ. First responders: mental health consequences of natural and human-made disasters for public health and public safety workers. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007;28(1):55–68. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greinacher A, Derezza-Greeven C, Herzog W, Nikendei C. Secondary traumatization in first responders: a systematic review. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2019;10(1):1562840. doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1562840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss NE. Gender equity and socioeconomic inequality: a framework for the patterning of women’s health. Soc Sci Med. 2002;54(5):649–61. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(01)00115-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacIntosh J, Wuest J, Gray MM, Aldous S. Effects of workplace bullying on how women work. West J Nurs Res. 2010;32(7):910–31. doi:10.1177/0193945910362226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Association of State EMS Officials. National emergency medical services assessment. Falls Church (VA): The National Association of State EMS Officials; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Frazer H, Hansen C, Searle A, Lawrence-Wood E, Van Hooff M. Exploration of potential indicators of burnout, psychological distress and post-traumatic stress disorder, among Australian female first responders.  Psychiatry Res. 2022;316:114771. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114771.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thyer L, Simpson P, Nugteren BV. Burnout in Australian paramedics. Int Paramedic Pract. 2018;8(3):48–55. doi:10.12968/ippr.2018.8.3.48.
   Google Scholar
• Bergen-Cico D, Lane S, Thompson M, Wozny S, Zajdel M, Barduhn M, Noce J. The impact of post-traumatic stress on first responders: analysis of cortisol, anxiety, depression, sleep impairment and pain. Int Paramedic Pract. 2015;5(3):78–87. doi:10.12968/ippr.2015.5.3.78.
   Google Scholar
• Jones S, Nagel C, McSweeney J, Curran G. Prevalence and correlates of psychiatric symptoms among first responders in a Southern State. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2018;32(6):828–35. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2018.06.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoo J, Kim JH, Yoon J, Kim SS. Sexual harassment and its relationship with depressive symptoms: a nationwide study of Korean EMS providers. Am J Ind Med. 2019;62(1):74–9. doi:10.1002/ajim.22924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigham BL, Jensen JL, Tavares W, Drennan IR, Saleem H, Dainty KN, Munro G. Paramedic self-reported exposure to violence in the emergency medical services (EMS) workplace: a mixed-methods cross-sectional survey. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2014;18(4):489–94. doi:10.3109/10903127.2014.912703.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosell E, Miller K, Barber K. Firefighting women and sexual harassment. Public Personnel Manage. 1995;24(3):339–50. doi:10.1177/009102609502400306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hom MA, Stanley IH, Spencer-Thomas S, Joiner TE. Women firefighters and workplace harassment: associated suicidality and mental health sequelae. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2017;205(12):910–7. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahnke SA, Haddock CK, Jitnarin N, Kaipust CM, Hollerbach BS, Poston WS. The prevalence and health impacts of frequent work discrimination and harassment among women firefighters in the US fire service. Biomed Res Int. 2019;2019:6740207–13. doi:10.1155/2019/6740207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith JC, Roberts DL, Wakeham RT. Bullying at the fire station? Perceptions based on gender, race and sexual orientation. Am Int J Soc Sci. 2016;5(2):34.
   Google Scholar
• Wexler JG, Logan DD. Sources of stress among women police officers. J Police Sci Adm. 1983;11(1):46–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonsoulin S, Palmer CE. Gender issues and partner preferences among a sample of emergency medical technicians. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1998;13(1):34–40. doi:10.1017/S1049023X0003301X.
   Google Scholar
• Sinden K, Macdermid J, Buckman S, Davis B, Matthews T, Viola C. A qualitative study on the experiences of female firefighters. Work. 2013;45(1):97–105. doi:10.3233/WOR-121549.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hassell KD, Archbold CA, Stichman AJ. Comparing the workplace experiences of male and female police officers: examining workplace problems, stress, job satisfaction and consideration of career change. Int J Police Sci Manage. 2011;13(1):37–53. doi:10.1350/ijps.2011.13.1.217.
   Google Scholar
• Alobaid AM, Gosling C, McKenna L, Williams B. Perceptions of EMS leaders and supervisors on the challenges faced by female paramedics in Riyadh Saudi Arabia: a qualitative study. Int J Emergency Serv. 2021;10(2):235–46. doi:10.1108/IJES-09-2020-0055.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahnke SA, Poston WS, Jitnarin N, Haddock CK. Maternal and child health among female firefighters in the US. Matern Child Health J. 2018;22(6):922–31. doi:10.1007/s10995-018-2468-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandelowski M. Sample size in qualitative research. Res Nurs Health. 1995;18(2):179–83. doi:10.1002/nur.4770180211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
   Google Scholar
• Braun V, Clarke V. Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qual Res Sport Exercise Health. 2019;11(4):589–97. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimbrel NA, Flynn EJ, Carpenter GS, Cammarata CM, Leto F, Ostiguy WJ, Kamholz BW, Zimering RT, Gulliver SB. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and predictive validity for a likert-based version of the sources of occupational stress-14 (SOOS-14) scale. Psychiatry Res. 2015;228(3):961–2. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.05.031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohland BM, Kruse GR, Rohrer JE. Validation of a single‐item measure of burnout against the Maslach Burnout Inventory among physicians. Stress Health: J Int Soc Invest Stress. 2004;20(2):75–9. doi:10.1002/smi.1002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Löwe B, Wahl I, Rose M, Spitzer C, Glaesmer H, Wingenfeld K, Schneider A, Brähler E. A 4-item measure of depression and anxiety: validation and standardization of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) in the general population. J Affect Disord. 2010;122(1–2):86–95. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lock S, Rees CS, Heritage B. Development and validation of a brief measure of psychological resilience: the state–trait assessment of resilience scale. Aust Psychologist. 2020;55(1):10–25. doi:10.1111/ap.12434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Sexual harassment of women: climate, culture, and consequences in academic sciences, engineering, and medicine. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Merit Systems Protection Board US. Sexual harassment in the federal workplace: trends, progress and continuing challenges. 1995. [Accessed 2023 June 20]. Available from: https://www.mspb.gov/MSPBSEARCH/viewdocs.aspx?docnumber=253661&version=253948&application=ACROBAT.
   Google Scholar
• Ilies R, Hauserman N, Schwochau S, Stibal J. Reported incidence rates of work‐related sexual harassment in the United States: using meta‐analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychol. 2003;56(3):607–31. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00752.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glomb TM, Richman WL, Hulin CL, Drasgow F, Schneider KT, Fitzgerald LF. Ambient sexual harassment: an integrated model of antecedents and consequences. Organ Behav Hum Decis Processes. 1997;71(3):309–28. doi:10.1006/obhd.1997.2728.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald LF, Cortina LM. Sexual harassment in work organizations: a view from the twenty-first century. APA handbook of the psychology of women APA; 2017. [Accessed 2023 June 20]. Available from: http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4311534.aspx?tab=2.
   Google Scholar
• Willness CR, Steel P, Lee K. A meta‐analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel Psychol. 2007;60(1):127–62. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young M. The community crisis response team training manual. 4th ed. Washington, DC: National Organization for Victims Assistance; 2009. p. 7.1–7.8.
   Google Scholar
• Huang G, Chu H, Chen R, Liu D, Banda KJ, O'Brien AP, Jen H-J, Chiang K-J, Chiou J-F, Chou K-R. Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among first responders for medical emergencies during COVID-19 pandemic: a meta-analysis. J Glob Health. 2022;12:05028. doi:10.7189/jogh.12.05028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendrickson RC, Slevin RA, Hoerster KD, Chang BP, Sano E, McCall CA, Monty GR, Thomas RG, Raskind MA. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, occupational functioning, and professional retention among health care workers and first responders. J Gen Intern Med. 2022;37(2):397–408. doi:10.1007/s11606-021-07252-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrie K, Milligan-Saville J, Gayed A, Deady M, Phelps A, Dell L, Forbes D, Bryant RA, Calvo RA, Glozier N, et al. Prevalence of PTSD and common mental disorders amongst ambulance personnel: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2018;53(9):897–909. doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1539-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erazo EE, Velásquez MJ, Chávez IG, Pullas DE. Factors associated with psychiatric adverse effects in healthcare personnel during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador. Rev Colomb Psiquiatría. 2021;50(3):166–75.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz, McCann-Pineo M. Occupational stress and mental outcomes among the emergency medical services population. In: New York City Epidemiological Forum Annual Conference, New York (NY); 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Stassen W, Van Nugteren B, Stein C. Burnout among advanced life support paramedics in Johannesburg, South Africa. Emerg Med J. 2013;30(4):331–4. doi:10.1136/emermed-2011-200920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cash RE, Powell JR, Peters GA, Goldberg SA, Panchal AR, Camargo CA. Jr Trends in demographic and employment characteristics of US emergency medical technicians and paramedics, 2011–2019. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2022;3(4):e12776. doi:10.1002/emp2.12776.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O. Nyumba T, Wilson K, Derrick CJ, Mukherjee N. The use of focus group discussion methodology: insights from two decades of application in conservation. Methods Ecol Evol. 2018;9(1):20–32. doi:10.1111/2041-210X.12860.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. The Pregnant Workers Fairness Act. 2023. [Accessed 2023 November 8]. Available from: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2023-08-11/pdf/2023-17041.pdf.
   Google Scholar