The Multiple Factors of Multiple Sclerosis: A Darwinian Perspective

References

• Keegan BM, Noseworthy JH. Multiple sclerosis. Annu Rev Med 2002; 53: 285–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compston A, Ebers G, Lassmann H, McDonald I, Matthews B, Wekerle H. McAlpine’s Multiple Sclerosis, 3rd edn. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Weiner H. Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease. Arch Neurol 2004; 61: 1613–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucchinetti C, Bruck W, Parisi J, Scheithauser B, Rodriguez M, Lassmann H. Heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis lesions: implications for the pathogenesis of demyelination. Ann Neurol 2000; 47: 707–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjartmar C, Trapp B. Axonal degeneration and progressive neurologic disability in multiple sclerosis. Neurotox Res 2003; 5: 157–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markovic-Plese S, Pinilla C, Martin R. The initiation of the autoimmune response in multiple sclerosis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2004; 106: 218–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wekerle H, Hohlfeld R. Molecular mimicry in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 185–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prat E, Martin R. The immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. J Rehabil Res Dev 2002; 39: 187–99.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double-edged sword. World Rev Nutr Diet 1999; 84: 19–73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eaton SB, Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 283–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarisbrick IA, Rodriguez M. Hit–hit and hit–run: viruses in the playing field of multiple sclerosis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2003; 3: 265–71.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levin LI, Munger KL, Rubertone MV et al. Multiple sclerosis and Epstein–Barr virus. JAMA 2003; 289: 1533–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wucherpfennig KW, Strominger JL. Molecular mimicry in T cell-mediated autoimmunity: viral peptides activate human T cell clones specific for myelin basic protein. Cell 1995; 80: 695–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christen U, von Herrath MG. Induction, acceleration or prevention of autoimmunity by molecular mimicry. Mol Immunol 2004; 40: 1113–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieterich W, Esslinger B, Schuppan D. Pathomechanisms in celiac disease. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2003; 132: 98–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winer S, Astsaturov I, Cheung RK et al. T cells of multiple sclerosis patients target a common environmental peptide that causes encephalitis in mice. J Immunol 2001; 166: 4751–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ostenstad B, Dybwad A, Lea T, Forre O, Vinje O, Sioud M. Evidence for monoclonal expansion of synovial T cells bearing V alpha 2.1/V beta 5.5 gene segments and recognizing a synthetic peptide that shares homology with a number of putative autoantigens. Immunology 1995; 86: 168–75.
   Google Scholar
• Wildner G, Diedrichs-Mohring M. Autoimmune uveitis and antigenic mimicry of environmental antigens. Autoimmun Rev 2004; 3: 383–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Honeyman MC, Stone NL, Harrison LC. T-cell epitopes in type 1 diabetes autoantigen tyrosine phosphatase IA-2: potential for mimicry with rotavirus and other environmental agents. Mol Med 1998; 4: 231–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefferl A, Schubart A, Storch M et al. Butyrophilin, a milk protein, modulates the encephalitogenic T cell response to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Immunol 2000; 165: 2859–65.
   Google Scholar
• Guggenmos J, Schubart AS, Ogg S et al. Antibody cross-reactivity between myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein and the milk protein butyrophilin in multiple sclerosis. J Immunol 2004; 172: 661–8.
   Google Scholar
• Malosse D, Perron H, Sasco A, Seigneurin JM. Correlation between milk and dairy product consumption and multiple sclerosis prevalence: a worldwide study. Neuroepidemiology 1992; 11: 304–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott FW, Cloutier HE, Kleemann R et al. Potential mechanisms by which certain foods promote or inhibit the development of spontaneous diabetes in BB rats: dose, timing, early effect on islet area, and switch in infiltrate from Th1 to Th2 cells. Diabetes 1997; 46: 589–98.
   Google Scholar
• Hanglow AC, Welsh CJ, Conn P, Coombs RR. Early rheumatoid-like synovial lesions in rabbits drinking cow’s milk. I. Joint pathology. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1985; 78: 145–51.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hafstrom I, Ringertz B, Spangberg A et al. A vegan diet free of gluten improves the signs and symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis: the effects on arthritis correlate with a reduction in antibodies to food antigens. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001; 40: 1175–9.
   Google Scholar
• Ikeuchi H, Yamamura T, Nakano H, Kosaka T, Shimoyama T, Fukuda Y. Efficacy of nutritional therapy for perforating and non-perforating Crohn’s disease. Hepatogastroenterology 2004; 51: 1050–2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wu HY, Weiner HL. Oral tolerance. Immunol Res 2003; 28: 265–84.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fink MP. Intestinal epithelial hyperpermeability: update on the pathogenesis of gut mucosal barrier dysfunction in critical illness. Curr Opin Crit Care 2003; 9: 143–51.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollander D. Intestinal permeability, leaky gut, and intestinal disorders. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 1999; 1: 410–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arshad SH. Food allergen avoidance in primary prevention of food allergy. Allergy 2001; 56 (Suppl 67): 113–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gibson GR. Dietary modulation of the human gut microflora using prebiotics. Br J Nutr 1998; 80: S209–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noverr MC, Huffnagle GB. Does the microbiota regulate immune responses outside the gut? Trends Microbiol 2004; 12: 562–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lange LS, Shiner M. Small-bowel abnormalities in multiple sclerosis. Lancet 1976; 2: 1319–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yacyshyn B, Meddings J, Sadowski D, Bowen-Yacyshyn MB. Multiple sclerosis patients have peripheral blood CD45ROz B cells and increased intestinal permeability. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41: 2493–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichelt KL, Jensen D. IgA antibodies against gliadin and gluten in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand 2004; 110: 239–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bach J. Autoimmune diseases as the loss of active ‘‘self-control’’. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003; 998: 161–77.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vieth R. Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 842–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bach J. The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 911–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cordain L, Eaton SB, Miller JB, Mann N, Hill K. The paradoxical nature of hunter–gatherer diets: meat-based, yet non-atherogenic. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002; 56 (Suppl 1): S42–52.
   Google Scholar
• Calder P. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation: from molecular biology to the clinic. Lipids 2003; 38: 343–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieth R. Why the optimal requirement for vitamin D3 is probably much higher than what is officially recommended for adults. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2004; 89–90:575–9.
   Google Scholar
• Embry A. Vitamin D supplementation in the fight against multiple sclerosis. J Orthomol Med 2004; 19: 27–38.
   Google Scholar
• VanAmerongen BM, Dijkstra CD, Lips P, Polman CH. Multiple sclerosis and vitamin D: an update. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004; 58: 1095–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhuri A. Why we should offer routine vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy and childhood to prevent multiple sclerosis. Med Hypoth 2005; 64: 608–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Mei IA, Ponsonby AL, Blizzard L, Dwyer T. Regional variation in multiple sclerosis prevalence in Australia and its association with ambient ultraviolet radiation. Neuroepidemiology 2001; 20: 168–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Mei IA, Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T et al. Past exposure to sun, skin phenotype, and risk of multiple sclerosis: case-control study. Br Med J 2003; 327: 316–22.
   Google Scholar
• Munger KL, Zhang SM, O’Reilly E et al. Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2004; 62: 60–5.
   Google Scholar
• Cantorna MT, Mahon BD. Mounting evidence for vitamin D as an environmental factor affecting autoimmune disease prevalence. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2004; 229: 1136–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nataf S, Garcion E, Darcy F, Chabannes D, Muller JY, Brachet P. 1,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D3 exerts regional effects in the central nervous system during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1996; 55: 904–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nashold FE, Miller DJ, Hayes CE. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 treatment decreases macrophage accumulation in the CNS of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2000; 103: 171–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James MJ, Proudman SM, Cleland LG. Dietary n-3 fats as adjunctive therapy in a prototypic inflammatory disease: issues and obstacles for use in rheumatoid arthritis. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2003; 68: 399–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belluzzi A. N-3 fatty acids for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases. Proc Nutr Soc 2002; 61: 391–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordvik I, Myhr KM, Nyland H, Bjerve KS. Effect of dietary advice and n-3 supplementation in newly diagnosed MS patients. Acta Neurol Scand 2000; 102: 143–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simopoulos AP. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother 2002; 56: 365–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juurlink BHJ. Management of oxidative stress in the CNS: the many roles of glutathione. Neurotox Res 1999; 1: 119–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilgun-Sherki Y, Melamed E, Offen D. The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: the need for effective antioxidant therapy. J Neurol 2004; 251: 261–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syburra C, Passi S. Oxidative stress in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ukr Biokhim Zh 1999; 71: 112–15.
   Google Scholar
• Riise T, Nortvedt MW, Ascherio A. Smoking is a risk factor for multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2003; 61: 1122–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morini M, Roccatagliata L, Dell’Eva R et al. Alpha-lipoic acid is effective in prevention and treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 148: 146–53.
   Google Scholar
• Liu Y, Zhu B, Wang X et al. Bilirubin as a potent antioxidant suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: implications for the role of oxidative stress in the development of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 139: 27–35.
   Google Scholar
• Hendriks JJ, de Vries HE, van der Pol SM, van den Berg TK, van Tol EA, Dijkstra CD. Flavonoids inhibit myelin phagocytosis by macrophages; a structure–activity relationship study. Biochem Pharmacol 2003; 65: 877–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yazdanbakhsh M, Kremsner PG, van Ree R. Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science 2002; 296: 490–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sotgiu S, Pugliatti M, Sotgiu A, Sanna A, Rosati G. Does the ‘‘hygiene hypothesis’’ provide an explanation for the high prevalence of multiple sclerosis in Sardinia? Autoimmunity 2003; 36: 257–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sewell DL, Reinke EK, Hogan LH, Sandor M, Fabry Z. Immunoregulation of CNS autoimmunity by helminth and mycobacterial infections. Immunol Lett 2002; 82: 101–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponsonby AL, van der Mei I, Dwyer T et al. Exposure to infant siblings during early life and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA 2005; 293: 463–9.
   Google Scholar
• Kurtzke JF, Page WF. Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in US veterans: VII. Risk factors for MS. Neurology 1997; 48: 204–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowis GW. The social epidemiology of multiple sclerosis. Sci Total Environ 1990; 90: 63–90.
   Google Scholar
• Willer CJ, Dyment DA, Risch NJ, Sadovnick AD, Ebers GC. Canadian Collaborative Study Group. Twin concordance and sibling recurrence rates in multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100: 12877–82.
   Google Scholar
• Holick MF. Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 80 (Suppl): 1678S–88S.
   Google Scholar
• Simopoulos AP. Importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids: evolutionary aspects. World Rev Nutr Diet 2003; 92: 1–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vieth R, Chan PC, MacFarlane GD. Efficacy and safety of vitamin D3 intake exceeding the lowest observed adverse effect level. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73: 288–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fioramonti J, Theodorou V, Bueno L. Probiotics: what are they? What are their effects on gut physiology? Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2003; 17: 711–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar