Review of phase 2/3 trials in polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis

References

• Dejaco C, Duftner C, Dasgupta B, et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis: management of two diseases of the elderly. Aging Health. 2011;7(4):633–645. doi: 10.2217/ahe.11.50
   Google Scholar
• Crowson CS, Matteson EL, Myasoedova E, et al. The lifetime risk of adult-onset rheumatoid Arthritis and other inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63(3):633–639. doi: 10.1002/art.30155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ, Solomon CG. Giant-cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(1):50–57. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1214825
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States, part II. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58(1):26–35. doi: 10.1002/art.23176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundberg IE, Sharma A, Turesson C, et al. An update on polymyalgia rheumatica. J Intern Med. 2022;292(5):717–732. doi: 10.1111/joim.13525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carvajal Alegria G, Boukhlal S, Cornec D, et al. The pathophysiology of polymyalgia rheumatica, small pieces of a big puzzle. Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19(11):102670. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennette JC, Falk RJ, Bacon PA, et al. 2012 revised international chapel hill consensus conference nomenclature of vasculitides. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65(1):1–11. doi: 10.1002/art.37715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez-Gay MA, Vazquez-Rodriguez TR, Lopez-Diaz MJ, et al. Epidemiology of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61(10):1454–1461. doi: 10.1002/art.24459
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dejaco C, Duftner C, Buttgereit F, et al. The spectrum of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: revisiting the concept of the disease. Rheumatol Oxf Engl. 2017;56(4):506–515. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kew273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ. Medium- and Large-Vessel Vasculitis. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(2):160–169. doi:10.1056/NEJMra022694
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baseline data on patients enrolled in a randomized, double-blind trial of Tocilizumab in giant cell arteritis [Internet]. ACR Meeting Abstracts. [cited 2023 Aug 21]. Available from: https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/baseline-data-on-patients-enrolled-in-a-randomized-double-blind-trial-of-tocilizumab-in-giant-cell-arteritis/
   Google Scholar
• Kermani TA, Warrington KJ, Cuthbertson D, et al. Disease relapses among patients with giant cell arteritis: a prospective, longitudinal cohort study. J Rheumatol. 2015;42(7):1213–1217. doi: 10.3899/jrheum.141347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinette ML, Rao DA, Monach PA. The immunopathology of giant cell arteritis across disease spectra. Front Immunol. 2021 [cited 2023 Aug 14];12. [Internet]. Available from: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.623716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamrin B, Jonsson N, Hellsten S. ‘Polymyalgia arteritica’. Further clinical and histopathological studies with a report of six autopsy cases. Ann Rheum Dis. 1968;27(5):397–405. doi:10.1136/ard.27.5.397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt WA, Gromnica-Ihle E. Incidence of temporal arteritis in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective study using colour Doppler ultrasonography of the temporal arteries. Rheumatol Oxf Engl. 2002;41(1):46–52. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/41.1.46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buttgereit F, Dejaco C, Matteson EL, et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis: a systematic review. JAMA. 2016;315(22):2442–2458. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.5444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dejaco C, Brouwer E, Mason JC, et al. Giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: current challenges and opportunities. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2017;13(10):578–592. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2017.142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acharya S, Musa R Polymyalgia Rheumatica. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 [cited 2023 Aug 14]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537274/
   Google Scholar
• Dejaco C, Singh YP, Perel P, et al. 2015 Recommendations for the management of polymyalgia rheumatica: a European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology collaborative initiative. Ann Rheum Dis. 2015;74(10):1799–1807. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-207492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta B, Borg FA, Hassan N, et al. BSR and BHPR guidelines for the management of polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology. 2010;49(1):186–190. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kep303a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta B, Dolan AL, Panayi GS, et al. An initially double-blind controlled 96 week trial of depot methylprednisolone against oral prednisolone in the treatment of polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology. 1998;37(2):189–195. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/37.2.189
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caporali R, Cimmino MA, Ferraccioli G, et al. Prednisone plus methotrexate for polymyalgia rheumatica: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141(7):493–500. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-141-7-200410050-00005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsman DE, Bolhuis TE, den Broeder N, et al. PolyMyalgia rheumatica treatment with methotrexate in optimal dose in an early disease phase (PMR MODE): study protocol for a multicenter double-blind placebo controlled trial. Trials. 2022;23(1):318. doi: 10.1186/s13063-022-06263-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buttgereit F, Matteson EL, Dejaco C, et al. Prevention of glucocorticoid morbidity in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology. 2018;57(suppl_2):ii11–21. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex459
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muratore F, Pipitone N, Hunder GG, et al. Discontinuation of therapies in polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2013;31(4 Suppl 78):S86–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris E, Tiganescu A, Tubeuf S, et al. The prediction and monitoring of toxicity associated with long-term systemic glucocorticoid therapy. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2015;17(6):38. doi: 10.1007/s11926-015-0513-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta B. Concise guidance: diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. Clin Med. 2010;10(4):381–386. doi:10.7861/clinmedicine.10-4-381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellmich B, Agueda A, Monti S, et al. 2018 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2020;79(1):19–30. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2019-215672
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazlumzadeh M, Hunder GG, Easley KA, et al. Treatment of giant cell arteritis using induction therapy with high-dose glucocorticoids: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized prospective clinical trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(10):3310–3318. doi: 10.1002/art.22163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chevalet P, Barrier JH, Pottier P, et al. A randomized, multicenter, controlled trial using intravenous pulses of methylprednisolone in the initial treatment of simple forms of giant cell arteritis: a one year followup study of 164 patients. J Rheumatol. 2000;27(6):1484–1491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng J, Younge BR, Olshen RA, et al. Th17 and Th1 T-Cell responses in giant cell arteritis. Circulation. 2010;121(7):906–915. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.872903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alba MA, García-Martínez A, Prieto-González S, et al. Relapses in patients with giant cell arteritis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2014;93(5):194–201. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000000033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labarca C, Koster MJ, Crowson CS, et al. Predictors of relapse and treatment outcomes in biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis: a retrospective cohort study. Rheumatology. 2016;55(2):347–356. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kev348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Liao YJ, Goronzy JJ. The immunopathology of giant cell arteritis: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. J Neuroophthalmol. 2012;32(3):259. doi:10.1097/WNO.0b013e318268aa9b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saadoun D, Garrido M, Comarmond C, et al. Th1 and Th17 cytokines drive inflammation in Takayasu arteritis. Arthritis Rheumat. 2015;67(5):1353–60. doi: 10.1002/art.39037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B. Visual deterioration in giant cell arteritis patients while on high doses of corticosteroid therapy. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(6):1204–1215. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00228-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocevar A, Rotar Z, Jese R, et al. Do early diagnosis and glucocorticoid treatment decrease the risk of permanent visual loss and early relapses in giant cell arteritis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(14):e3210. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000003210
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• University Hospital, Caen. A randomized, controled, open label trial: comparison between two standardized corticosteroids tapering, respectively short (North American) and Long (European), in giant cell arteritis [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2020 Oct [cited 2023 Oct 6]. Report No.: NCT04012905. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04012905
   Google Scholar
• Koster MJ, Achenbach SJ, Crowson CS, et al. Healthcare use and direct cost of giant cell arteritis: a population-based study. J Rheumatol. 2017;44(7):1044–50. doi: 10.3899/jrheum.161516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mounié M, Costa N, Sailler L, et al. Incremental costs in giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2018;70(7):1074–81. doi: 10.1002/acr.23429
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babigumira JB, Li M, Boudreau DM, et al. Estimating the cost of illness of giant cell arteritis in the United States. Rheumatol Ther. 2017;4(1):111–119. doi: 10.1007/s40744-017-0052-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Best JH, Kong AM, Smith DM, et al. Healthcare costs of potential glucocorticoid-associated adverse events in patients with giant cell arteritis. Clinicoecon Outcomes Res. 2019;11:799–807. doi: 10.2147/CEOR.S228400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Overview | tocilizumab for treating giant cell arteritis | guidance | NICE [Internet]. NICE; 2018 [cited 2023 Aug 5]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta518
   Google Scholar
• Conway R, Putman MS, Mackie SL. Benchmarking tocilizumab use for giant cell arteritis. Rheumatol Adv Pract. 2022;6(2):rkac037. doi:10.1093/rap/rkac037
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dasgupta B, Panayi GS. Interleukin-6 in serum of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology. 1990;29(6):456–458. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/29.6.456
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seitz MN, Reichenbach S, Bonel HM, et al. Rapid induction of remission in large vessel vasculitis by IL-6 blockade. Swiss Med Wkly. 2011;141(304):w13156–w13156. doi: 10.4414/smw.2011.13156
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stone JH, Tuckwell K, Dimonaco S, et al. Trial of tocilizumab in giant-cell arteritis. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(4):317–328. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1613849
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strand V, Dimonaco S, Tuckwell K, et al. Health-related quality of life in patients with giant cell arteritis treated with tocilizumab in a phase 3 randomised controlled trial. Arthritis Res Ther. 2019;21(1):64. doi: 10.1186/s13075-019-1837-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• RoActemra 20mg/ml concentrate for solution for infusion - summary of product characteristics (SmPC) - (emc) [Internet]. [cited 2023 Aug 13]. Available from: https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/6673/smpc#gref
   Google Scholar
• Stone JH, Han J, Aringer M, et al. Long-term effect of tocilizumab in patients with giant cell arteritis: open-label extension phase of the giant cell arteritis actemra (GiACTA) trial. Lancet Rheumatol. 2021;3(5):e328–36. doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(21)00038-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stone JH, Spotswood H, Unizony SH, et al. New-onset versus relapsing giant cell arteritis treated with tocilizumab: 3-year results from a randomized controlled trial and extension. Rheumatology. 2022;61(7):2915–2922. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keab780
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felten L, Leuchten N, Aringer M. Glucocorticoid dosing and relapses in giant cell arteritis—a single centre cohort study. Rheumatology. 2022;61(5):1997–2005. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keab677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glucocorticoid therapy in giant cell arteritis: duration and adverse outcomes. [cited 2023 Aug 23]. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.11388
   Google Scholar
• Proven A, Gabriel SE, Orces C, et al. Glucocorticoid therapy in giant cell arteritis: duration and adverse outcomes. Arthritis Care Res. 2003;49(5):703–708. doi: 10.1002/art.11388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis JR, Westfall AO, Allison J, et al. Population-based assessment of adverse events associated with long-term glucocorticoid use. Arthritis Care Res. 2006;55(3):420–426. doi: 10.1002/art.21984
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scenario: Management | Management | Giant cell arteritis | CKS | NICE [Internet]. [cited 2023 Oct 8]. Available from: https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/giant-cell-arteritis/management/management/
   Google Scholar
• Tomelleri A, van der Geest KSM, Khurshid MA, et al. Disease stratification in GCA and PMR: state of the art and future perspectives. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2023;19(7):446–459. doi: 10.1038/s41584-023-00976-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mainbourg S, Addario A, Samson M, et al. Prevalence of giant cell arteritis relapse in patients treated with glucocorticoids: a meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res. 2020;72(6):838–849. doi: 10.1002/acr.23901
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mettler C, Jonville-Bera AP, Grandvuillemin A, et al. Risk of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica following COVID-19 vaccination: a global pharmacovigilance study. Rheumatology. 2022;61(2):865–867. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keab756
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liozon E, Parreau S, Filloux M, et al. Giant cell arteritis or polymyalgia rheumatica after influenza vaccination: a study of 12 patients and a literature review. Autoimmun Rev. 2021;20(2):102732. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brief report: In search of a candidate pathogen for giant cell arteritis: Sequencing‐based characterization of the giant cell arteritis microbiome. [cited 2023 Aug 21]. Available from: https://acrjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.38631
   Google Scholar
• Galli E, Muratore F, Boiardi L, et al. Significance of inflammation restricted to adventitial/periadventitial tissue on temporal artery biopsy. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2020;50(5):1064–1072. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2020.05.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryshchep O, Ma-Krupa W, Younge BR, et al. Vessel-specific soll-like receptor profiles in human medium and large arteries. Circulation. 2008;118(12):1276–1284. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.789172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ. Immune mechanisms in medium and large vessel vasculitis. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2013;9(12):731–740. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2013.161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Younge BR, Goronzy JJ. IFN-γ and IL-17 - the two faces of T cell pathology in giant cell arteritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2011;23(1):43–49. doi:10.1097/BOR.0b013e32833ee946
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghoreschi K, Laurence A, O’Shea JJ. Janus kinases in immune cell signaling. Immunol Rev. 2009;228(1):273–287. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00754.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser M, Younge B, Björnsson J, et al. Formation of new vasa vasorum in vasculitis. Am J Pathol. 1999;155(3):765–774. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65175-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serum interleukin‐6 receptor in polymyalgia rheumatica: a potential marker of relapse/recurrence risk. [cited 2023 Aug 15]. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.23924
   Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Hicok KC, Hunder GG, et al. Tissue cytokine patterns in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121(7):484–491. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-121-7-199410010-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Disturbed B cell homeostasis in newly diagnosed giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. [cited 2023 Aug 21]. Available from: https://acrjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.38625
   Google Scholar
• Kreiner F, Galbo H. Effect of etanercept in polymyalgia rheumatica: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Res Ther. 2010;12(5):R176. doi:10.1186/ar3140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Macchioni P, Manzini C, et al. Infliximab plus prednisone or placebo plus prednisone for the initial treatment of polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann Intern Med [Internet]. 2007 May 1 [cited 2023 Aug 31]. Available from: https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/0003-4819-146-9-200705010-00005
   Google Scholar
• Novartis Pharmaceuticals. A 2-week single-blind, randomized, 3-arm proof of concept study of the effects of AIN457 (anti-IL17 antibody), ACZ885 (Canakinumab, anti-IL1b antibody), or corticosteroids in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica, followed by an open label phase to assess safety and long term efficacy [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2021 Aug [cited 2023 Sep 1]. Report No.: NCT01364389. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT01364389
   Google Scholar
• Novartis Pharmaceuticals. A randomized, parallel-group, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter phase III trial to evaluate efficacy and safety of secukinumab administered subcutaneously versus placebo, in combination with a Glucocorticoid Taper Regimen, in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov. 2023 Oct [cited 2023 Oct 13]. Report No.: NCT05767034. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05767034
   Google Scholar
• Lally L, Forbess L, Hatzis C, et al. Brief report: a prospective open-label phase IIa trial of tocilizumab in the treatment of polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Rheumatol Hoboken NJ. 2016;68(10):2550–2554. doi: 10.1002/art.39740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devauchelle-Pensec V, Berthelot JM, Cornec D, et al. Efficacy of first-line tocilizumab therapy in early polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective longitudinal study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2016;75(8):1506–1510. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-208742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devauchelle-Pensec V, Carvajal-Alegria G, Dernis E, et al. Effect of tocilizumab on disease activity in patients with active polymyalgia rheumatica receiving glucocorticoid therapy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;328(11):1053–1062. doi: 10.1001/jama.2022.15459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonelli M, Radner H, Kerschbaumer A, et al. Tocilizumab in patients with new onset polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR-SPARE): a phase 2/3 randomised controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2022;81(6):838–844. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-221126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiera RF, Unizony S, Warrington KJ, et al. Sarilumab for relapse of polymyalgia rheumatica during glucocorticoid taper. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(14):1263–1272. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2303452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Li J, Yin H, et al. Efficacy and safety of tofacitinib in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: a phase 2 study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2023;82(5):722–724. doi: 10.1136/ard-2022-223562
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• University Hospital, Brest. BAriCitinib healing effect in earLy pOlymyalgia rheumatica (BACHELOR study) [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2022 Jan [cited 2023 Oct 13]. Report No.: NCT04027101. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04027101
   Google Scholar
• Sint Maartenskliniek. Rituximab effect on decreasing glucocorticoid exposition in polymyalgia rheumatica patients experiencing a PMR relapse [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2023 May [cited 2023 Oct 13]. Report No.: NCT05533164. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05533164
   Google Scholar
• University Hospital, Brest. To demonstrate the ability of abatacept in comparison to placebo to obtain a low disease activity [PMR-AS (CRP) lower or equal to 10] without GCs (prednisone or prednisolone) at week 12 in early onset PMR patients. [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2022 May [cited 2023 Oct 13]. Report No.: NCT03632187. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03632187
   Google Scholar
• Langford CA, Cuthbertson D, Ytterberg SR, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of abatacept (CTLA-4Ig) for the treatment of giant cell arteritis. Arthritis & Rheumat. 2017;69(4):837–845. doi: 10.1002/art.40044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maz M, Chung SA, Abril A, et al. 2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the management of giant cell arteritis and Takayasu arteritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2021;73(8):1071–1087. doi: 10.1002/acr.24632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossi D, Cecchi I, Sciascia S, et al. An agent-to-agent real life comparison study of tocilizumab versus abatacept in giant cell arteritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2021;Suppl 39(2):125–128. doi: 10.55563/clinexprheumatol/l0hd9v
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbera-Bellalta M, Alba-Rovira R, Muralidharan S, et al. Blocking GM-CSF receptor α with mavrilimumab reduces infiltrating cells, pro-inflammatory markers and neoangiogenesis in ex vivo cultured arteries from patients with giant cell arteritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2022;81(4):524–536. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-220873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cid MC, Unizony SH, Blockmans D, et al. Efficacy and safety of mavrilimumab in giant cell arteritis: a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2022;81(5):653–661. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-221865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, Watanabe R, Berry GJ, et al. Inhibition of JAK-STAT signaling suppresses pathogenic immune responses in medium and large vessel vasculitis. Circulation. 2018;137(18):1934–1948. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanada A, Abe N, Bohgaki M, et al. Therapeutic effectiveness of upadacitinib combined with glucocorticoid on remission induction and maintenance in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology. 2022;61(9):e274–6. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keac203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson P, Skoglund O, Hemgren C, et al. Clinical experience and safety of janus kinase inhibitors in giant cell arteritis: a retrospective case series from Sweden. Front Immunol [Internet]. 2023 [[cited 2023 Sep 20]];14. Available from. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1187584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway R, O’Neill L, Gallagher P, et al. Ustekinumab for refractory giant cell arteritis: a prospective 52-week trial. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2018;48(3):523–528. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2018.04.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matza MA, Fernandes AD, Stone JH, et al. Ustekinumab for the treatment of giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2021;73(6):893–897. doi: 10.1002/acr.24200
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler RD, Smith R, Kitsanta P, et al. Paradoxical new diagnosis of giant cell arteritis while receiving ustekinumab. JCR: J Clin Rheumatol. 2020;26(7):e215. doi: 10.1097/RHU.0000000000001084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espígol-Frigolé G, Corbera-Bellalta M, Planas-Rigol E, et al. Increased IL-17A expression in temporal artery lesions is a predictor of sustained response to glucocorticoid treatment in patients with giant-cell arteritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2013;72(9):1481–1487. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-201836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Márquez A, Hernández-Rodríguez J, Cid MC, et al. Influence of the IL17A locus in giant cell arteritis susceptibility. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(9):1742–1745. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2014-205261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venhoff N, Schmidt WA, Bergner R, et al. Safety and efficacy of secukinumab in patients with giant cell arteritis (TitAIN): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Rheumatol. 2023;5(6):e341–50. doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(23)00101-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tomelleri A, Rinaldi E, Campochiaro C, et al. Successful use of ixekizumab for glucocorticoid-free remission maintenance in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology. 2023;62(2):e24–6. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keac416
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rotar Ž, Tomšič M, Hočevar A. Secukinumab for the maintenance of glucocorticoid-free remission in a patient with giant cell arteritis and psoriatic arthritis. Rheumatology. 2018;57(5):934–936. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kex507
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ly KH, Stirnemann J, Liozon E, et al. Interleukin-1 blockade in refractory giant cell arteritis. Joint Bone Spine. 2014;81(1):76–78. doi: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2013.06.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshayes S, Ly KH, Rieu V, et al. Steroid-sparing effect of anakinra in giant-cell arteritis: a case series with clinical, biological and iconographic long-term assessments. Rheumatology. 2021;61(1):400–406. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keab280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• University Hospital, Caen. Randomized, controlled, double-blind study of Anakinra against placebo in addition to steroids in giant cell arteritis [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2020 Feb [cited 2023 Oct 6]. Report No.: NCT02902731. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT02902731
   Google Scholar
• Janssen Research & Development, LLC. A phase 2, multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, proof-of-concept study to evaluate guselkumab for the treatment of participants with new-onset or relapsing giant cell arteritis [Internet]. Clinicaltrials.Gov; 2023 Sep [cited 2023 Oct 6]. Report No.: NCT04633447. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04633447
   Google Scholar
• Seror R, Baron G, Hachulla E, et al. Adalimumab for steroid sparing in patients with giant-cell arteritis: results of a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(12):2074–2081. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-203586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman GS, Cid MC, Rendt-Zagar KE, et al. Infliximab for maintenance of glucocorticosteroid-induced remission of giant cell arteritis. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(9):621–630. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-146-9-200705010-00004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayrbaeurl B, Hinterreiter M, Burgstaller S, et al. The first case of a patient with neutropenia and giant-cell arteritis treated with rituximab. Clin Rheumatol. 2007;26(9):1597–1598. doi: 10.1007/s10067-007-0684-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatia A. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) as an adjunct in the treatment of giant cell arteritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64(7):1099–1100. doi:10.1136/ard.2005.036533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koster MJ, Matteson EL, Warrington KJ. Recent advances in the clinical management of giant cell arteritis and Takayasu arteritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2016;28(3):211. doi:10.1097/BOR.0000000000000265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackie SL, Koduri G, Hill CL, et al. Accuracy of musculoskeletal imaging for the diagnosis of polymyalgia rheumatica: systematic review. RMD Open. 2015;1(1):e000100. doi: 10.1136/rmdopen-2015-000100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yuge S, Nakatani K, Yoshino K, et al. Diagnosing polymyalgia rheumatica on 18F-FDG PET/CT: typical uptake patterns. Ann Nucl Med. 2018;32(8):573–577. doi: 10.1007/s12149-018-1269-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackie SL, Arat S, da Silva J, et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) Special Interest Group at OMERACT 11: outcomes of importance for patients with PMR. J Rheumatol. 2014;41(4):819–823. doi: 10.3899/jrheum.131254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coath FL, Mukhtyar C. Ultrasonography in the diagnosis and follow-up of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology. 2021;60(6):2528–36. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keab179
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pipitone N, Versari A, Salvarani C. Role of imaging studies in the diagnosis and follow-up of large-vessel vasculitis: an update. Rheumatology. 2007;47(4):403–408. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kem379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauenstein C, Reinhard M, Geiger J, et al. Effects of early corticosteroid treatment on magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography findings in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology. 2012;51(11):1999–2003. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kes153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt WA. Role of ultrasound in the understanding and management of vasculitis. Therapeutic advances in musculoskeletal disease. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis. 2014;6(2):39–47. doi: 10.1177/1759720X13512256
   PubMedGoogle Scholar