The diagnosis of central nervous system infections in resource-limited settings and the use of novel and molecular diagnostic platforms to improve diagnosis

References

• Wunrow HY, Bender RG, Vongpradith A, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of meningitis and its aetiologies, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet Neurol [Internet]. 2023 Aug;22(8):685–711. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1474442223001953
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Zhao S, Wang S, et al. Global magnitude of encephalitis burden and its evolving pattern over the past 30 years. J Infect. 2022 Jun 1;84(6):777–787. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2022.04.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajasingham R, Govender NP, Jordan A, et al. The global burden of HIV-associated cryptococcal infection in adults in 2020: a modelling analysis. Lancet Infect Dis [Internet]. 2022;22(12):1748–1755. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00499-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodd PJ, Osman M, Cresswell FV, et al. The global burden of tuberculous meningitis in adults: a modelling study. PLoS Glob Public Health. 2021 Dec 8;1(12):e0000069. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000069
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zunt JR, Kassebaum NJ, Blake N, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of meningitis, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2018 Dec 1;17(12):1061–1082. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30387-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sulaiman T, Salazar L, Hasbun R. Acute versus subacute community-acquired meningitis: analysis of 611 adult patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3(suppl_1). doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofw172.878
   Google Scholar
• Tenforde MW, Mokomane M, Leeme T, et al. Epidemiology of adult meningitis during antiretroviral therapy scale-up in southern Africa: results from the Botswana national meningitis survey. J Infect. 2019;79(3):212–219. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2019.06.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dittrich S, Rattanavong S, Lee SJ. et al. Orientia, rickettsia, and Leptospira pathogens as causes of CNS infections in Laos: a prospective study. Lancet Glob Health. 2015 Feb;3(2):e104–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lingani C, Bergeron-Caron C, Stuart JM, et al. Meningococcal meningitis surveillance in the African meningitis belt, 2004–2013. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Nov 15;61(suppl_5):S410–5. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ597
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Siddiqi OK, Ghebremichael M, Dang X, et al. Molecular diagnosis of central nervous system opportunistic infections in HIV-infected Zambian adults. Clinl Infect Dis. 2014 Jun 15;58(12):1771–1777. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis J, Bangdiwala AS, V CF, et al. The changing epidemiology of HIV-Associated adult meningitis, Uganda 2015–2017. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019 Oct 1;6(10). doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofz419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tenforde MW, Gertz AM, Lawrence DS, et al. Mortality from HIV‐associated meningitis in sub‐Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Int AIDS Soc. 2020 Jan;23(1). doi: 10.1002/jia2.25416
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeBiasi RL, Tyler KL. Molecular methods for diagnosis of viral encephalitis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(4):903–925. doi: 10.1128/CMR.17.4.903-925.2004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGill F, Heyderman RS, Michael BD, et al. The UK joint specialist societies guideline on the diagnosis and management of acute meningitis and meningococcal sepsis in immunocompetent adults. J Infect. 2016 Apr 1;72(4):405–438. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2016.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakousis A, Tan L, Ellis D. et al. An assessment of the efficiency of fungal DNA extraction methods for maximizing the detection of medically important fungi using PCR. J Microbiol Methods. 2006 Apr;65(1):38–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridge S, Huppler K, Nerima C, et al. Evaluation of the BioFire Ò FilmArray Ò Meningitis/Encephalitis panel in an adult and pediatric Ugandan population. J Med Mycol. 2021;31(3):101170. doi: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2021.101170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cresswell FV, Tugume L, Bahr NC, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF ultra for the diagnosis of HIV-associated tuberculous meningitis: a prospective validation study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 Mar 1;20(3):308–317. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30550-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarborough M, Thwaites GE. The diagnosis and management of acute bacterial meningitis in resource-poor settings. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(7):637–648. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70139-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvis JN, Meintjes G, Williams A, et al. Adult meningitis in a setting of high HIV and TB prevalence: findings from 4961 suspected cases. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10(1):10. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-10-67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tenforde MW, Meintjes G, Mokomane M, et al. Low-cerebrospinal fluid white cell counts and mortality in HIV-associated pneumococcal meningitis. AIDS. 2019 Jul 15;33(9):1539–1541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clinl Infect Dis. 2004;1October129(9):1267–1284. doi: 10.1086/425368
   Google Scholar
• Poplin V, Boulware DR, Bahr NC. Methods for rapid diagnosis of meningitis etiology in adults. Biomarker Med. 2020;14(6):459–479. doi: 10.2217/bmm-2019-0333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvis JN, Bicanic T, Loyse A. et al. Determinants of mortality in a combined cohort of 501 patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: implications for improving outcomes. Clinl Infect Dis. 2014 Mar;58(5):736–745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohr V, Rasmussen N, Hansen B. et al. 875 cases of bacterial meningitis: diagnostic procedures and the impact of preadmission antibiotic therapy part III of a three-part series. J Infect. 1983 Nov;7(3):193–202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanegaye JT, Soliemanzadeh P, Bradley JS. Lumbar puncture in pediatric bacterial meningitis: defining the time interval for recovery of cerebrospinal fluid pathogens after parenteral antibiotic pretreatment. Pediatrics. 2001 Nov;108(5):1169–1174. doi: 10.1542/peds.108.5.1169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tschopp J, Brunel AS, Spertini O, et al. High false-positive rate of (1,3)-β-D-Glucan in onco-hematological patients receiving immunoglobulins and therapeutic antibodies. Clinl Infect Dis. 2022 Aug 25;75(2):330–333. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab1028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanamori H, Kanemitsu K, Miyasaka T, et al. Measurement of (1-3)-.BETA.-D-Glucan derived from different gauze types. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2009;217(2):117–121. doi: 10.1620/tjem.217.117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis C, Wheat LJ, Myint T, et al. Efficacy of cerebrospinal fluid beta-D-glucan diagnostic testing for fungal meningitis: a systematic review. J Clin Microbiol [Internet]. 2020;58(4). doi: 10.1128/jcm.02094-19
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forster J, Hoenigl M, Suerbaum S, et al. Serologic biomarkers in Candida and aspergillus infections of the central nervous system: a comparison of galactomannan, mannan and β-1,3-D-gucan testing from serum and cerebrospinal fluid. Mycoses. 2022 Jul 1;65(7):709–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song J, Kim SH, Jung YR, et al. 10-year retrospective review of the etiologies for meningitis with elevated adenosine deaminase in cerebrospinal fluid: etiologies other than TB. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022 Jul 5;12. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.858724
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekermans P, Dusé A, George J. The dubious value of cerebrospinal fluid adenosine deaminase measurement for the diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis. BMC Infect Dis. 2017 Dec 31;17(1):104.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mishra O. Cerebrospinal fluid adenosine deaminase activity for the diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis in children. J Trop Pediatr. 1996 Jun 1;42(3):129–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macrae C, Ellis J, Keddie SH, et al. Diagnostic performance of the IMMY cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay on serum and cerebrospinal fluid for diagnosis of cryptococcosis in HIV-negative patients: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis. 2023 Apr 6;23(1):209. doi: 10.1186/s12879-023-08135-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Temfack E, Rim JJB, Spijker R, et al. Cryptococcal antigen in serum and cerebrospinal fluid for detecting cryptococcal meningitis in adults living with human immunodeficiency virus: systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy studies. Clinl Infect Dis. 2021 Apr 8;72(7):1268–1278. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tadeo KK, Nimwesiga A, Kwizera R, et al. Evaluation of the diagnostic performance of a semiquantitative cryptococcal antigen point-of-care assay among HIV-Infected persons with cryptococcal meningitis. J Clin Microbiol. 2021 Jul 1;59(8). doi: 10.1128/JCM.00860-21
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feagins AR, Ronveaux O, Taha MK. et al. Next generation rapid diagnostic tests for meningitis diagnosis. J Infect. 2020 Nov;81(5):712–718
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddar C, Terrade A, Verhoeven P. et al. Validation of a new rapid detection test for detection of Neisseria meningitidis A/C/W/X/Y antigens in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 2020 Feb;58(3):e01699–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Meeting report of a technical expert consultation: non-inferiority analysis of xpert MTB/RIF ultra compared to xpert MTB/RIF [Internet]. 2017. Available from: http://apps.who.int/bookorders
   Google Scholar
• Heemskerk AD, Donovan J, Thu DDA, et al. Improving the microbiological diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis: A prospective, international, multicentre comparison of conventional and modified Ziehl–Neelsen stain, GeneXpert, and culture of cerebrospinal fluid. J Infect. 2018 Dec 1;77(6):509–515. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2018.09.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seid G, Alemu A, Dagne B, et al. Microbiological diagnosis and mortality of tuberculosis meningitis: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2023 Feb 1;18(2):e0279203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen P, Shi M, Feng GD. et al. A highly efficient Ziehl-Neelsen stain: Identifying de novo intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis and improving detection of extracellular M. tuberculosis in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 2012 Apr;50(4):1166–1170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stadelman AM, Ssebambulidde K, Buller A, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid AFB smear in adults with tuberculous meningitis: a systematic review and diagnostic test accuracy meta-analysis. SSRN Electron J. 2021. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3770634
   Google Scholar
• Donovan J, Thu DDA, Phu NH, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF ultra versus xpert MTB/RIF for the diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis: a prospective, randomised, diagnostic accuracy study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 Mar 1;20(3):299–307. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30649-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahr NC, Nuwagira E, Evans EE, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra for tuberculous meningitis in HIV-infected adults: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Jan 1;18(1):68–75. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30474-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohli M, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF ultra and xpert MTB/RIF assays for extrapulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jan 15;1(1):CD012768. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012768.pub3. PMID: 33448348; PMCID: PMC8078545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan J, Cresswell FV, Thuong NTT, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF ultra for the diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis: a small step forward. Clin Infec Dis. 2020 Nov 5;71(8):2002–2005. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa473
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broger T, Nicol MP, Szekely R, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of a novel tuberculosis point-of-care urine lipoarabinomannan assay for people living with HIV: a meta-analysis of individual in- a nd outpatient data. PLoS Med. 2020;17(5):1–16. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siddiqi OK, Birbeck GL, Ghebremichael M, et al. Prospective cohort study on performance of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) xpert MTB/RIF, CSF lipoarabinomannan (LAM) lateral flow assay (LFA), and urine LAM LFA for diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis in Zambia. J Clin Microbiol. 2019;57(8). doi: 10.1128/JCM.00652-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn CM, Kagimu E, Okirworth M, et al. Fujifilm SILVAMP TB LAM assay on cerebrospinal fluid for the detection of tuberculous meningitis in adults with human immunodeficiency virus. Clinl Infect Dis. 2021;73(9):e3428–34. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1910
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma K, Sharma M, Modi M, et al. Comparative analysis of TruenatE MTB plus and XpertW Ultra in diagnosing tuberculous meningitis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2021 Aug 1;25(8):626–631. doi: 10.5588/ijtld.21.0156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bossolasco S, Calori G, Moretti F, et al. Prognostic significance of JC virus DNA levels in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with HIV-Associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy [Internet]. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/40/5/738/365769
   Google Scholar
• Nakamichi K, Kawamoto M, Ishii J. et al. Improving detection of JC virus by ultrafiltration of cerebrospinal fluid before polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. BMC neurol. 2019 Oct 25;19(1). doi: 10.1186/s12883-019-1476-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferretti F, Bestetti A, Yiannoutsos CT, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic value of JC virus DNA in plasma in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Clinl Infect Dis. 2018 Jun 18;67(1):65–72. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciy030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan IL, McArthur JC, Clifford DB, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in natalizumab-associated PML. Neurology. 2011 Sep;77(11):1061–1067. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31822e55e7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger JR, Aksamit AJ, Clifford DB, et al. VIEWS & REVIEWS PML diagnostic criteria consensus statement from the AAN neuroinfectious disease section [Internet]. 2013. Available from: www.neurology.org
   Google Scholar
• Miskin DP, Ngo LH, Koralnik IJ. Diagnostic delay in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2016;3(5):386–391. doi: 10.1002/acn3.301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma SK, Soneja M, Ranjan S, et al. Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in HIV/AIDS: observational study from a tertiary care centre in northern India. Indian J Med Res. 2013;138(JUL 2013):72–77.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arora S, Ahmad FMH, Deshwal R, et al. Study of clinical profile and outcomes in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era - an observational study. Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS. 2022;43(2):156–160. doi: 10.4103/ijstd.IJSTD_29_18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidal JE, de OA, MCDS F, et al. Aids-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a retrospective study in a referral center in São Paulo, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2008 Aug;50(4):209–212. doi: 10.1590/S0036-46652008000400004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schutte CM, Ranchhod N, Kakaza M, et al. AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML): a retrospective study from Pretoria, South Africa. S Afr Med J. 2013;103(6):399–401. doi: 10.7196/SAMJ.6386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sim BZ, Smith LK, Yarwood T, et al. Successful treatment of HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with pembrolizumab. AIDS. 2022 Mar 1;36(3):483–485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safarpour H, Cevik M, Zarean M, et al. Global status of Toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in people living with HIV. AIDS. 2020 Mar 1;34(3):469–474. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0000000000002424
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bokharaei-Salim F, Esteghamati A, Khanaliha K, et al. Evaluation of a PCR assay for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in serum and peripheral blood mononuclear cell among HIV/AIDS patients. J Parasitic Dis. 2020 Mar 1;44(1):159–165. doi: 10.1007/s12639-019-01176-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang ZD, Wang SC, Liu HH, et al. Prevalence and burden of Toxoplasma gondii infection in HIV-infected people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet HIV. 2017;4(4):e177–88. doi: 10.1016/S2352-3018(17)30005-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Q, Wang ZD, Huang SY, et al. Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis and typing of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasites Vectors. 2015 Dec 28;8(1):292. doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-0902-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roux G, Varlet-Marie E, Bastien P, et al. Evolution of toxoplasma-PCR methods and practices: a French national survey and proposal for technical guidelines. Int J Parasitol. 2018;48(9–10):701–707. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.03.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesołowski R, Pawłowska M, Smoguła M, et al. Advances and challenges in diagnostics of toxoplasmosis in HIV-Infected patients. Pathogens. 2023 Jan 9;12(1):110. doi: 10.3390/pathogens12010110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell GL, Hills SL, Fischer M, et al. Estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;89(10):766–774. doi: 10.2471/BLT.10.085233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackenzie JS, Williams DT, van den Hurk AF, et al. Japanese encephalitis virus: the emergence of genotype IV in Australia and its potential endemicity. Viruses. 2022 Nov 9;14(11):2480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bharucha T, Sengvilaipaseuth O, Vongsouvath M, et al. Development of an improved RT-qPCR assay for detection of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) RNA including a systematic review and comprehensive comparison with published methods. PLoS One. 2018 Mar 1;13(3):e0194412. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194412
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bharucha T, Shearer FM, Vongsouvath M, et al. A need to raise the bar — A systematic review of temporal trends in diagnostics for Japanese encephalitis virus infection, and perspectives for future research. Inter J Infect Dis. 2020 Jun 1;95:444–456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowley J, Vander HS, Korenromp E, et al. Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, trichomoniasis and syphilis: global prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016. Bull World Health Organ. 2019 Aug 1;97(8):548–562P. doi: 10.2471/BLT.18.228486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks M, Jarvis JN, Howlett W, et al. Neurosyphilis in Africa: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017 Aug 1;11(8):e0005880. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005880
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Voux A, Kidd S, Torrone EA. Reported cases of neurosyphilis among early syphilis cases—United States, 2009 to 2015. Sex Transm Dis. 2018 Jan;45(1):39–41. doi: 10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ropper AH, Neurosyphilis, Longo DL editor, et al. Neurosyphilis. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2019 Oct 3;381(14):1358–1363. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1906228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks M, Lawrence D, Kositz C. et al. Diagnostic performance of PCR assays for the diagnosis of neurosyphilis: a systematic review. Sex Transm Infect. 2018 Dec;94(8):585–588
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez H, Koralnik IJ, Huhn GD, et al. A dual-platform point-of-care test for neurosyphilis diagnosis. Sex Transm Dis. 2021 May 1;48(5):353–356. doi: 10.1097/OLQ.0000000000001308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leber A, Everhart K, Balada-Llasat J, et al. Multi-center clinical evaluation of a multiplex Meningitis/Encephalitis PCR panel for simultaneous detection of bacteria, yeast, and viruses in cerebrospinal fluid specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2016;54(9):2251–2261. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00730-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tansarli GS, Chapin KC. Diagnostic test accuracy of the BioFire® FilmArray® meningitis/encephalitis panel: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(3):281–290. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2019.11.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humisto A, Antikainen J, Holma T, et al. Evaluation of the novel CE-IVD-Marked multiplex PCR QIAstat-dx Meningitis/Encephalitis panel. Microbiol Spectr. 2023;11(3):1–11. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.05144-22
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• QIAGEN. Sample to insight QIAstat-dx ® Meningitis/Encephalitis (ME) panel instructions for use (handbook) 6. 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Rhein J, Bahr NC, Hemmert AC, et al. Diagnostic performance of a multiplex PCR assay for meningitis in an HIV-infected population in Uganda. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016 Mar;84(3):268–273. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2015.11.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bårnes GK, Gudina EK, Berhane M, et al. New molecular tools for meningitis diagnostics in Ethiopia - a necessary step towards improving antimicrobial prescription. BMC Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):1–14. doi: 10.1186/s12879-018-3589-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Debbagh F, Harrar S, Babokh F, et al. The contribution of multiplex polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of central nervous system infections in intensive care units. Cureus. 2023;15(2). doi: 10.7759/cureus.35338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarai B, Das P. FilmArray® meningitis/encephalitis (ME) panel, a rapid molecular platform for diagnosis of CNS infections in a tertiary care hospital in North India: one-and-half-year review. Neurol Sci. 2019;40(1):81–88. doi: 10.1007/s10072-018-3584-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peñata A, Mesa S, Leal A, et al. Molecular diagnosis of meningitis and meningoencephalitis with an automated real-time multiplex polymerase chain reaction in a tertiary reference complex in medellín, Colombia. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2020;62:e77. doi: 10.1590/s1678-9946202062077
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brisset J, Angendu Baki K, Watier L, et al. Non-traumatic coma in young children in Benin: are viral and bacterial infections gaining ground on cerebral malaria? Infect Dis Poverty. 2022;11(1):1–10. doi: 10.1186/s40249-022-00956-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simner PJ, Miller S, Carroll KC. Understanding the promises and hurdles of metagenomic next-generation sequencing as a diagnostic tool for infectious diseases. Clinl Infect Dis. 2018;66(5):778–788. doi: 10.1093/cid/cix881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson MR, Sample HA, Zorn KC, et al. Clinical metagenomic sequencing for diagnosis of meningitis and encephalitis. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(24):2327–2340. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1803396
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong NTT, Anh NT, Mai NTH, et al. Performance of metagenomic next-generation sequencing for the diagnosis of viral meningoencephalitis in a resource-limited setting. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(3):1–10. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramachandran PS, Ramesh A, Creswell FV, et al. Integrating central nervous system metagenomics and host response for diagnosis of tuberculosis meningitis and its mimics. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):1–12. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-29353-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houlihan CF, Bharucha T, Breuer J. Advances in molecular diagnostic testing for central nervous system infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2019;32(3):244–250. doi: 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong NTT, Anh NT, Mai NTH, et al. Performance of metagenomic next-generation sequencing for the diagnosis of viral meningoencephalitis in a resource-limited setting. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020 Mar 1;7(3). doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wick RR, Judd LM, Holt KE, et al. Assembling the perfect bacterial genome using oxford nanopore and Illumina sequencing. PLoS Comput Biol. 2023 Mar 1;19(3):e1010905. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu T, Chitnis N, Monos D, et al. Next-generation sequencing technologies: an overview. Hum Immunol. 2021;82(11):801–811. doi: 10.1016/j.humimm.2021.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar