Prevention of necrotising enterocolitis: Year 2004 and beyond

References

• Neu J. Necrotizing enterocolitis: the search for a unifying pathogenic theory leading to prevention. Pediatr Clin North Am 1996;43:409–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uauy RD, Fanaroff AA, Korones SB, Phillips EA, Phillips JB, Wright LL. Necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants: biodemographic and clinical correlates. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. J Pediatr 1991;119:630–638.
   Google Scholar
• Stoll BJ. Epidemiology of necrotizing enterocolitis. Clin Perinatol 1994;21:205–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng S. Necrotizing enterocolitis in the full-term neonate. J Paediatr Child Health 2001;37:1–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowe MI, Reblock KK, Kurkchubasche AG, Healey PJ. Necrotizing enterocolitis in the extremely low birth weight infant. J Pediatr Surg 1994;29:987–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz MZ. Necrotizing enterocolitis. In: O'Neill JA, Grosfeld JI,, Fonkalsrud EW, Coran AG, Caldamone AA, editors. Principles of pediatric surgery. St. Louis: Mosby; 2004. pp 509–517.
   Google Scholar
• McDonnell M, Wilkinson A. Necrotising enterocolitis-perinatal approach to prevention, early diagnosis and management. Semin Neonatol 1997;2:291–296.
   Google Scholar
• Sonntag J, Grimmer I, Scholz T, Metze B, Wit J, Obladen M. Growth and neurodevelopmental outcome of very low birthweight infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. Acta Paediatr 2000;89:528–532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vohr BR, Wright LL, Dusick AM, et al. Neurodevelop-mental and functional outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, 1993-1994. Pediatrics 2000;105:1216–1226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisquera JA, Cooper TR, Berseth CL. Impact of necrotizing enterocolitis on length of stay and hospital charges in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2002;109:423–428.
   Google Scholar
• Hsueh W, Caplan MS, Qu XW, Tan XD, De Plaen IG, Gonzalez-Crussi F. Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis: clin-ical considerations and pathogenetic concepts. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2003;6:6–23.
   Google Scholar
• Hsueh W, Caplan MS, Sun X, Tan X, MacKendrick W, Gonzalez-Crussi F. Platelet-activating factor, tumor necrosis factor, hypoxia and necrotizing enterocolitis. Acta Paediatr Supp 1 1994;396:11–17.
   Google Scholar
• Furukawa M, Lee EL, Johnston JM. Platelet-activating factor-induced ischemic bowel necrosis: the effect of plate-let-activating factor acetylhydrolase. Pediatr Res 1993;34:237–241.
   Google Scholar
• Sun X1\4, Hsueh W. Bowel necrosis induced by tumor necrosis factor in rats is mediated by platelet-activating factor. J Chin Invest 1988;81:1328–1331.
   Google Scholar
• Muguruma K, Gray PW, Tjoelker LW, Johnston JM. The central role of PAF in necrotizing enterocolitis development. Adv Exp Med Biol 1997;407:37.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabinowitz SS, Dzakpasu P, Piecuch S, Leblanc P, Valencia G, Kornecki E. Platelet-activating factor in infants at risk for necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 2001;138:81–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan MS, Sun XM, Hseuh W, Hageman JR Role of platelet activating factor and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 1990;116:960–964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amer MD, Hedlund E, Rochester J, Caplan MS. Platelet-activating factor concentration in the stool of human new-borns: effects of enteral feeding and neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Biol Neonate 2004;85:159–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacKendrick W, Hill N, Hsueh W, Caplan M. Increase in plasma platelet-activating factor levels in enterally fed preterm infants. Biol Neonate 1993;64:89–95.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lucas A, Cole TJ. Breast milk and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis. Lancet 1990;336:1519–1523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan MS, Amer M, Piling T. The role of human milk in necrotising enterocolitis. Adv Exp Med Biol 2002,503:83–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson LA. Human milk and host defence: immediate and long-term effects. Acta Paediatr 1999;88:42–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schanler RJ. The use of human milk for premature infants. Pediatr Clin North Am 2001;48:207–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman AS. Modulation of the gastrointestinal tract of infants by human milk. Interfaces and interactions. An evolutionary perspective. J Nutr 2000,130:426S–431S.
   Google Scholar
• Caplan M, Hsueh W, Kelly A, Donovan M. Serum PAF acetylhydrolase increases during neonatal maturation. Pros-taglandins 1990;39:705–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furukawa M, Narahara H, Yasuda K, Johnston JM. Presence of platelet-activating factor-acetylhydrolase in milk. J Lipid Res 1993;34:1603–1609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akisu M, Kultursay N, Ozkayin N, Coker I, Huseyinov A. Platelet-activating factor levels in term and preterm human milk. Biol Neonate 1998;74:289–293.
   Google Scholar
• Bunton GL, Durbin GM, McIntosh N, et al. Necrotizing enterocolitis. Controlled study of 3 years' experience in a neonatal intensive care unit. Arch Dis Child 1977;52: 772–777.
   Google Scholar
• Dvorak B, Halpern MD, Holubec H, et al. Maternal milk reduces severity of necrotizing enterocolitis and increases intestinal IL-10 in a neonatal rat model. Pediatr Res 2003;53:426–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire W, Anthony MY. Donor human milk versus formula for preventing necrotising enterocolitis in preterm infants: systematic review. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003;88:F11–F14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celano P, Jumawan J, Horowitz C, Lau H, Koldovsky 0. Prenatal induction of sucrase activity in rat jejunum. Biochem J 1977;162:469–472.
   Google Scholar
• Moog F. Developmental adaptations of alkaline phospha-tases in the small intestine. Fed Proc 1962;21:51–56.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neu J, Ozaki CK, Angelides KJ. Glucocorticoid-mediated alteration of fluidity of brush border membrane in rat small intestine. Pediatr Res 1986;20:79–82.
   Google Scholar
• Israel EJ, Schiffrin EJ, Carter EA, Freiberg E, Walker WA. Prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in the rat with prenatal cortisone. Gastroenterology 1990;99:1333–1338.
   Google Scholar
• Shulman RJ, Schanler RJ, Lau C, Heitkemper M, Ou CN, Smith EO. Early feeding, antenatal glucocorticoids, and human milk decrease intestinal permeability in preterm infants. Pediatr Res 1998;44:519–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousvaros A, Walker WA. Development and function of the intestinal mucosal barrier. In: McDonald TT, editor. Ontogeny of the human system of the gut. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1990. pp 2–22.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer T, McDonald TT. The ontogeny of the immune system of the gut. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1990. pp 23–50.
   Google Scholar
• Buchmiller TL, Shaw KS, Lam ML, Stokes R, Diamond JS, Fonkalsrud EW. Effect of prenatal dexamethasone adminis-tration: fetal rabbit intestinal nutrient uptake and disaccharidase development. J Surg Res 1994;57:274–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer CR, Morrison JC, Poole WK, et al. A decreased incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis after prenatal gluco-corticoid therapy. Pediatrics 1984;73:682–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowley P, Chalmers I, Keirse MJ. The effects of corticos-teroid administration before preterm delivery: an overview of the evidence from controlled trials. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:11–25.
   Google Scholar
• Halac E, Halac J, Begue EF, Casanas JM, et al. Prenatal and postnatal corticosteroid therapy to prevent neonatal necrotiz-ing enterocolitis: a controlled trial. J Pediatr 1990;117:132–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uauy RD, Fanaroff AA, Korones SB, Phillips EA, Phillips JB, Wright LL. Necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants: biodemographic and clinical correlates. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. J Pediatr 1991;119:630–638.
   Google Scholar
• Clark DA, Miller MJS. What causes necrotising enterocolitis and how can it be prevented? In: Hansen TN, McIntosh N, editors. Current topics in neonatology number 1. London: Saunders; 1996. pp 161–176.
   Google Scholar
• Patole S, Muller R Enteral feeding of preterm neonates-A survey of Australian neonatologists. Proceedings of the 7th annual congress of the Perinatal Society of Australia and New Zealand (PSANZ), March 2003: P155.
   Google Scholar
• Patole S, McGlone L, Muller R Virtual elimination of necrotising enterocolitis for 5 years - reasons? Med Hypotheses 2003;61:617–622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamitsuka MD, Horton MK, Williams MA. The incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis after introducing standardized feed-ing schedules for infants between 1250 and 2500 grams and less than 35 weeks of gestation. Pediatrics 2000;105: 379–384.
   Google Scholar
• Brown EG, Sweet AY. Preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates. JAMA 1978;240:2452–2454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spritzer R, Koolen AM, Baerts W, Fetter WP, Lafeber HN, Sauer PJ. A prolonged decline in the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis after the introduction of a cautious feeding regimen. Acta Paediatr Scand 1988;77:909–911.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patole SK, Kadalraja R, Tuladhar R, Almonte R, Muller R, Whitehall JS. Benefits of a standardised feeding regimen during a clinical trial in preterm neonates. Int J Chin Pract 2000;54:429–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Premji SS, Chessell L, Paes B, Pinelli J, Jacobson. A matched cohort study of feeding practice guidelines for infants weighing less than 1,500 g. Adv Neonatal Care 2002;2: 27–36.
   Google Scholar
• Kuzma-O'Reilly B, Duenas ML, et al. Evaluation, develop-ment and implementation of potentially better practices in neonatal intensive care nutrition. Pediatrics 2003;111:e461–e470.
   Google Scholar
• Patole SK, de Klerk N. Impact of standardised feeding protocols on incidence of necrotising enterocolitis - A systematic review and Meta analysis. Proceedings of the 13th Congress of the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies (FAOPS), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, April 2004; OS-41: 146.
   Google Scholar
• Millar M, Wilks M, Costeloe K. Probiotics for preterm infants? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003;88:F354–F358.
   Google Scholar
• Nicaise P, Gleizes A, Forestier F, Quero AM, Labarre C. Influence of intestinal bacterial flora on cytokine (IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-alpha) production by mouse peritoneal macro-phages. Eur Cytokine Netw 1993;4: 133–138.
   Google Scholar
• Claud EC, Walker WA. Hypothesis: inappropriate coloniza-tion of the premature intestine can cause neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. FASEB J 2001;15:1398–1403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan MS, Miller-Catchpole R, Kaup S, et al. Bifidobac-terial supplementation reduces the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in a neonatal rat model. Gastroenterology 1999;117:577–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butel MJ, Roland N, Hibert A, et al. Clostridial pathogeni-city in experimental necrotising enterocolitis in gnotobiotic quails and protective role of bifidobacteria. J Med Microbiol 1998;47:391–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dani C, Biadaioli R, Bertini G, Martelli E, Rubaltelli FF. Probiotics feeding in prevention of urinary tract infection, bacterial sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. A prospective double-blind study. Biol Neonate 2002;82:103–108.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson C, McCarter YS, Krause PJ, Herson VC. Lactobacillus acidophilus sepsis in a neonate. J Perinatol 2001;21:258–260.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Antony SJ. Lactobacillemia: an emerging cause of infection in both the immunocompromised and the immunocompe-tent host. J Natl Med Assoc 2000;92:83–86.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amin HJ, Zamora SA, McMillan DD, et al. Arginine supplementation prevents necrotizing enterocolitis in the premature infant. J Pediatr 2002;140:425–431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haklar G, Ulukaya-Durakbasa C, Yuksel M, Dagli T, Yalcin AS. Oxygen radicals and nitric oxide in rat mesenteric ischaemia-reperfusion: modulation by L-arginine and NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1998;25:908–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark DA, Fornabaio DM, McNeill H, Mullane KM, Caravella SJ, Miller MJ. Contribution of oxygen-derived free radicals to experimental necrotizing enterocolitis. Am J Pathol 1988;130:537–542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Lorenzo M, Krantis A. Altered nitric oxide production in the premature gut may increase susceptibility to intestinal damage in necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 2001;36:700–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zamora SA, Amin HJ, McMillan DD, et al. Plasma L-arginine concentrations in premature infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 1997;131:226–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker RM, Wu G, Galanko JA, et al. Reduced serum amino acid concentrations in infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 2000;137:785–793.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Lorenzo M, Bass J, Krantis A. Use of L-arginine in the treatment of experimental necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 1995;30:235–240.
   Google Scholar
• Chan KL, Hui CW, Chan KW, et al. Revisiting ischemia and reperfusion injury as a possible cause of necrotizing enterocolitis: Role of nitric oxide and superoxide dismutase. J Pediatr Surg 2002;37:828–834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lass A, Suessenbacher A, Wolkart G, Mayer B, Brunner F. Functional and analytical evidence for scavenging of oxygen radicals by L-arginine. Mol Pharmacol 2002;61:1081–1088.
   Google Scholar
• Neu J. Arginine supplementation and the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2002;140:389–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn P, Thomas P, Clark R, Neu J. Enteral glutamine supplementation and morbidity in low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2003;142:662–668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saugstad OD. Oxygen toxicity in the neonatal period. Acta Paediatr Scand 1990;79:881–892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saugstad OD. Mechanisms of tissue injury by oxygen radicals: implications for neonatal disease. Acta Paediatr 1996;85:1–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saugstad OD Update on oxygen radical disease in neonatol-ogy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2001;13:147–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suresh GK, Davis JM, Soll RF. Superoxide dismutase for preventing chronic lung disease in mechanically ventilated preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;1:CD001968.
   Google Scholar
• Miller MJ, McNeill H, Mullane KM, Caravella SJ, Clark DA. SOD prevents damage and attenuates eicosanoid release in a rabbit model of necrotizing enterocolitis. Am J Physiol 1988;255:G556–G565.
   Google Scholar
• Botsford KB, Weinstein RA, Boyer KM, Nathan C, Carman M, Paton JB. Gram-negative bacilli in human milk feedings: quantitation and clinical consequences for premature infants. J Pediatr 1986;109:707–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreiner RL, Eitzen H, Gfell MA, et al. Environmental contamination of continuous drip feedings. Pediatrics 1979;63:232–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrion V, Egan EA. Prevention of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1990;11:317–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uauy R, Hoffman DR Essential fat requirements of preterm infants. Am J Chin Nutr 2000;71:245S–250S.
   Google Scholar
• James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Chin Nutr 2000;71:3435–3485.
   Google Scholar
• Carlson SE, Montalto MB, Ponder DL, Werkman SH, Korones SB. Lower incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants fed a preterm formula with egg phospholipids. Pediatr Res 1998;44:491–498.
   Google Scholar
• Caplan MS, Piing T. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in intestinal inflammation and neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Lipids 2001;36:1053–1057.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bury RG, Tudehope D. Enteral antibiotics for preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in low birthweight or preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;1:CD000405.
   Google Scholar
• Eibl MM, Wolf HM, Furnkranz H, Rosenkranz A. Preven-tion of necrotizing enterocolitis in low-birth-weight infants by IgA-IgG feeding. N Engl J Med 1988;319:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster J, Cole M. Oral immunoglobulin for preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm and low birth-weight neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;1:CD001816.
   Google Scholar
• Bell EF, Warburton D, Stonestreet BS, Oh W. High-volume fluid intake predisposes premature infants to necrotising enterocolitis. Lancet 1979;2:90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenz JM, Kleinman U, Kotagal UR, Reller MD. Water balance in very low-birth-weight infants: relationship to water and sodium intake and effect on outcome. J Pediatr 1982;101:423–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tammela OK. Appropriate fluid regimens to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Eur J Pediatr 1995;154:S15–S18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell EF, Acarregui MJ. Restricted versus liberal water intake for preventing morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;3:CD000503.
   Google Scholar
• Vinter-Jensen L. Pharmacological effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) with focus on the urinary and gastrointestinal tracts. APMIS Suppl 1999;93:1–42.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wong WM, Wright NA. Epidermal growth factor, epidermal growth factor receptors, intestinal growth, and adaptation. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1999;23:S83–S88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin CE, Falcone RA Jr, Stuart L, Erwin CR, Warner BW. Diminished epidermal growth factor levels in infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 2000;35:173–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagbemi AO, Wright N, Lakhoo K, Edwards AD. Immu-noreactive epidermal growth factor receptors are present in gastrointestinal epithelial cells of preterm infants with necrotising enterocolitis. Early Hum Dev 2001;65:1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern LE, Erwin CR, O'Brien DP, Huang F, Warner BW. Epidermal growth factor is critical for intestinal adaptation following small bowel resection. Microsc Res Tech 2000 15;51:138–148.
   Google Scholar
• Dvorak B, Halpern MD, Holubec H, et al. Epidermal growth factor reduces the development of necrotizing enterocolitis in a neonatal rat model. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002;282:G156–G164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berseth CL, Go VL. Enhancement of neonatal somatic and hepatic growth by orally administered epidermal growth factor in rats. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1988;7:889–893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guglietta A, Sullivan PB. Clinical applications of epidermal growth factor. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1995;7:945–950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fant ME, Weisoly D. Insulin and insulin-like growth factors in human development: implications for the perinatal period. Semin Perinatol 2001;25:426–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shulman RJ. Effect of enteral administration of insulin on intestinal development and feeding tolerance in preterm infants: a pilot study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002;86:F131–F133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledbetter DJ, Juul SE. Erythropoietin and the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants with very low birth weight. J Pediatr Surg 2000;35:178–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juul SE, Joyce AE, Zhao Y, Ledbetter DJ. Why is erythropoietin present in human milk? Studies of erythro-poietin receptors on enterocytes of human and rat neonates. Pediatr Res 1999;46:263–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akisu M, Kullahcioglu Girgin F, Baka M, Husseyinov A, Kultursay N. The role of recombinant human erythropoietin in lipid peroxidation and platelet-activating factor generation in a rat model of necrotizing enterocolitis. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2001;11:167–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juul SE, Ledbetter DJ, Joyce AE, et al. Erythropoietin acts as a trophic factor in neonatal rat intestine. Gut 2001;49:182–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumral A, Baskin H, Duman N, et al. Erythropoietin protects against necrotizing enterocolitis of newborn rats by the inhibiting nitric oxide formation. Biol Neonate 2003;84:325–329.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Caddell JL. A review of evidence for a role of magnesium and possibly copper deficiency in necrotizing enterocolitis. Magnes Res 1996;9:55–66.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ford H, Watkins S, Reblock K, Rowe M. The role of inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 1997;32:275–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan MS, Hedlund E, Adler L, Lickerman M, Hsueh W. The platelet-activating factor receptor antagonist WEB 2170 prevents neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis in rats. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997;24: 296–301.
   Google Scholar
• Puglisi RN, Strande L, Santos M, Schulte G, Hewitt CW, Whalen TV. Beneficial effects of cyclosporine and rapamycin in small bowel ischemic injury. J Surg Res 1996;65:115–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasna IH, Lee RT. Allopurinol protects the bowel from necrosis caused by indomethacin and temporary intestinal ischemia in mice. J Pediatr Surg 1993;28:1175–1177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris JB, Guerrero NH, Furth EE, Stellato TA. Somatos-tatin attenuates ischemic intestinal injury. Am J Surg 1993;165:676–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nafday SM, Green RS, Chauvin SN, Holzman IR, Magid MS, Lin J. Vitamin A supplementation ameliorates butyric acid-induced intestinal mucosal injury in newborn rats. J Perinat Med 2002;30:121–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okur H, Kucukaydin M, Kose K, Kontas 0, Dogam P, Kazez A. Hypoxia-induced necrotizing enterocolitis in the immature rat: the role of lipid peroxidation and management by vitamin E. J Pediatr Surg 1995;30: 1416–1419.
   Google Scholar
• Kocherlakota P, La Gamma EF. Human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor may improve outcome attributable to neonatal sepsis complicated by neutropenia. Pediatrics 1997;100:E6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuenzler KA, Arthur LG, Schwartz MZ. A possible mechanism for prevention of intestinal programmed cell death after ischemia-reperfusion injury by hepatocyte growth factor pretreatment. J Pediatr Surg 2002;37:1696–1699.
   Google Scholar
• Sencan A, Yilmaz 0, Ozer E, et al. Does sucralfate prevent apoptosis occurring in the ischemia/reperfusion-induced intestinal injury? Eur J Pediatr Surg 2003;13:231–235.
   Google Scholar
• Akisu M, Ozmen D, Baka M, et al. Protective effect of dietary supplementation with L-arginine and L-carnitine on hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced necrotizing enterocolitis in young mice. Biol Neonate 2002;81:260–265.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Du X, Liu Q, Yang Z, et al. Protective effects of interleukin-11 in a murine model of ischemic bowel necrosis. Am J Physiol 1997;272:G545–G552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grosfeld JL, Du X, Williams DA. Interleukin-11: its biology and prospects for clinical use. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1999;23:S67–S69.
   Google Scholar
• Ozturk H, Dokucu AT, Ogun C, Buyukbayram H. Protective effects of recombinant human interleukin-10 on intestines of hypoxia-induced necrotizing enterocolitis in immature rats. J Pediatr Surg 2002;37:1330–1333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdener D, Bakirtas F, Alkanat M, Mutaf I, Habif S, Bayindir 0. Pentoxifylline does not prevent hypoxia/reox-ygenation-inducednecrotizingenterocolitis.Anexperimental study. Biol Neonate 2004;86:29–33.
   Google Scholar
• piling T, Lu J, Jackson M, Caplan MS. Intestinal epithelial apoptosis initiates gross bowel necrosis in an experimental rat model of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Res 2004;55:622–629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang BH, Yu HG, Sheng ZX, Luo HS, Yu JP. The therapeutic effect of recombinant human trefoil factor 3 on hypoxia-induced necrotizing enterocolitis in immature rat. Regul Pept 2003;116: 53–60.
   Google Scholar
• Uguralp S, Mizrak B, Karabulut AB, Gurbuz N, Demircan M. Interferon-alpha reduces the development of experi-mental necrotizing enterocolitis. Cytokine 2004;25:204–211.
   Google Scholar
• Shattuck KE, Richardson CJ, Rassin DK, Lobe TE. Evaluation of hexosaminidase activity as a potential bio-chemical marker in serum for necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1987;6:234–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edelson MB, Sonnino RE, Bagwell CE, Lieberman JM, Marks WH, Rozycki HJ. Plasma intestinal fatty acid binding protein in neonates with necrotizing enterocolitis: a pilot study. J Pediatr Surg 1999;34:1453–1457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips AR, Abu-Zidan FM, Farrant GJ, Zwi JL, Cooper GJ, Windsor JA. Plasma amylin concentration is related to the severity of intestinal ischemic injury in rats. Surgery 2001;129:730–735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimmitt RA, Glew R, Colby C, Brindle M, Skarsgard E, Moss RL. Serum cytosolic beta-glucosidase activity in a rat model of necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Res 2003;54:462–465.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edelson MB, Bagwell CE, Rozycki HJ. Circulating pro- and counterinflammatory cytokine levels and severity in necrotiz-ing enterocolitis. Pediatrics 1999;103:766–771.
   Google Scholar
• Morecroft JA, Spitz L, Hamilton PA, Holmes SJ. Plasma cytokine levels in necrotizing enterocolitis. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1994;396:18–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morecroft JA, Spitz L, Hamilton PA, Holmes SJ. Plasma interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor levels as predictors of disease severity and outcome in necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 1994;29:798–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samaniego Munoz M, Sanchez Navarro MR. Serum CK-BB. A biochemical marker in neonatal necrotizing enter-ocolitis. An Esp Pediatr 1996;44:577–580.
   Google Scholar
• Fried MW, Murthy UK, Hassig SR, Woo J, Oates RP. Creatine kinase isoenzymes in the diagnosis of intestinal infarction. Dig Dis Sci 1991;36:1589–1593.
   Google Scholar
• Fortune PM, Wagstaff M, Petros AJ. Cerebro-splanchnic oxygenation ratio (CSOR) using near infrared spectroscopy may be able to predict splanchnic ischaemia in neonates. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:1401–1407.
   Google Scholar
• Hatherill M, Tibby SM, Denver L, Marsh MJ, Murdoch IA. Early detection of necrotizing enterocolitis by gastrointestinal tonometry. Acta Paediatr 1998;87:344–345.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell ME, Van Aerde JE, Cheung PY, Mayes DC. Tonometry to estimate intestinal perfusion in newborn piglets. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1999;81:F105–F109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koivusalo A, Kauppinen H, Anttila A, Heikkila P, Rintala R, Lindahl H. Rectosigmoid pHi monitoring during experi-mental necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 2000;35: 1462–1467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rencken 10, Sola A, al-Ali F, et al. Necrotizing enterocolitis: diagnosis with CT examination of urine after enteral administration of iodinated water-soluble contrast material. Radiology 1997;205: 87–90.
   Google Scholar
• Stordahl A. Urinary excretion of iohexol administered enterally in rats with intestinal ischaemia. A transmural and transperitoneal route of transport. Scand J Gastroenterol 1988;23:751–754.
   Google Scholar
• Scott SM, Rogers C, Angelus P, Backstrom C. Effect of necrotizing enterocolitis on urinary epidermal growth factor levels. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:804-807. Erratum in: Am J Dis Child 1991;145: 982.
   Google Scholar
• Garcia J, Smith FR, Cucinell SA Urinary D-lactate excretion in infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 1984;104:268–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheu HW, Brown DR, Rowe MI. Breath hydrogen excretion as a screening test for the early diagnosis of necrotizing enterocolitis. Am J Dis Child 1989;143:156–159.
   Google Scholar
• Shulman RJ, Buffone G, Wise L. Enteric protein loss in necrotizing enterocolitis as measured by fecal alpha 1-antitrypsin excretion. J Pediatr 1985;107: 287–289.
   Google Scholar
• Hyman PE, Abrams CE, Zipser RD. Enhanced urinary immunoreactive thromboxane in neonatal necrotizing en-terocolitis. A diagnostic indicator of thrombotic activity. Am J Dis Child 1987;141:686–689.
   Google Scholar
• Miller JE, Whitman GJ, Iozzo RV, Jacobs DO, Ziegler MM. Early diagnosis of experimental necrotizing enterocolitis using proton nuclear magnetic resonance. J Surg Res 1985;39:322–330.
   Google Scholar
• Haase GM, Sfakianakis GN, Lobe TE, Boles ET. Prospec-tive evaluation of radionuclide scanning in detection of intestinal necrosis in neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg 1981;16:241–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caride VJ, Touloukian RJ, Ablow RC, Lange RC, Matthews T. Abdominal and hepatic uptake of 99mTc-pyrophosphate in neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Radiology 1981;139: 205–209.
   Google Scholar
• Maalouf EF, Fagbemi A, Duggan PJ, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of intestinal necrosis in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2000;105:510–514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denham W, Norman JG. Why sepsis trials fail. JAMA 1996;276:1723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bone RC. Why sepsis trials fail. JAMA 1996;276:565–566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esmon CT. Why do animal models (sometimes) fail to mimic human sepsis? Crit Care Med 2004;32:S219–S222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts I. Animal research. Three Rs should be registration randomisation, and reviews (systematic). BMJ 2001;322: 1604.
   Google Scholar
• Pound P, Ebrahim S, Sandercock P, Bracken MB, Roberts I; Reviewing Animal Trials Systematically (RATS) Group. Where is the evidence that animal research benefits humans? BMJ 2004;328:514–517.
   Google Scholar
• Book LS, Herbst JJ, Atherton SO, Jung AL. Necrotizing enterocolitis in low-birth-weight infants fed an elemental formula. J Pediatr 1975;87:602–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White KC, Harkavy KL. Hypertonic formula resulting from added oral medications. Am J Dis Child 1982;136:931–933.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Willis DM, Chabot J, Radde IC, Chance GW. Unsuspected hyperosmolality of oral solutions contributing to necrotizing enterocolitis in very-low-birth-weight infants. Pediatrics 1977;60:535–538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Travadi J, Patole S, Simmer K. Gastrointestinal contrast studies in high-risk neonates with suspected necrotising enterocolitis-a note of caution. J Perinat Med 2003;31:523–525.
   Google Scholar
• Tuladhar R, Daftary A, Patole SK, Whitehall JS. Oral gastrografin in neonates: a note of caution. Int J Chin Pract 1999;53:565.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jadcherla SR, Kliegman RM. Studies of feeding intolerance in very low birth weight infants: definition and significance. Pediatrics 2002;109:516–517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berseth CL, Bisquera JA, Paje VU. Prolonging small feeding volumes early in life decreases the incidence of necrotising enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2003;111:529–533.
   Google Scholar
• Patole SK. Safety of enteral feed volumes in neonates at risk for necrotising enterocolitis: the never-ending story. Pedia-trics 2004;114:327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mihatsch WA, von Schoenaich P, Fahnenstich H, et al. The significance of gastric residuals in the early enteral feeding advancement of extremely low birth weight infants. Pedia-trics 2002;109:457–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb BA, Carlo WA, Ambalavanan N. Gastric residuals and their relationship to necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2004;113:50–53.
   Google Scholar
• Malhotra AK, Deorari AK, Paul VK, Bagga A, Singh M. Gastric residuals in preterm babies. J Trop Pediatr 1992;38:262–264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyson JE, Kennedy KA. Minimal enteral nutrition for promoting feeding tolerance and preventing morbidity in parenterally fed infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;2: C D000504.
   Google Scholar