1,574
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Episiotomy: history, present and future – a review

, , , &
Pages 1386-1391 | Received 10 May 2019, Accepted 10 Apr 2020, Published online: 26 Apr 2020

References

  • Carroli G, Mignini L. Episiotomy for vaginal birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;01(1):CD000081.
  • Jiang H, Qian X, Carroli G, et al. Selective versus routine use of episiotomy for vaginal birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;2:CD000081.
  • Sleep J, Grant A, Garcia J, et al. West Berkshire perineal management trial. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed.). 1984;289(6445):587–590.
  • Lyndon A, Lee HC, Gilbert WM, et al. Maternal morbidity during childbirth hospitalization in California. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25(12):2529–2535.
  • Kalis V, Laine K, de Leeuw JW, et al. Classification of episiotomy: towards a standardisation of terminology. BJOG. 2012;119(5):522–526.
  • Muhleman MA, Aly I, Walters A, et al. To cut or not to cut, that is the question: a review of the anatomy, the technique, risks, and benefits of an episiotomy. Clin Anat. 2017;30(3):362–372.
  • Thacker SB, Banta HD. Benefits and risks of episiotomy: an interpretative review of the English language literature, 1860–1980. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1983;38(6):322–338.
  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Committee. Practice Bulletin No. 165: Prevention and management of obstetric lacerations at vaginal delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 2016;128(165):e1–e15.
  • Klein MC, Gauthier RJ, Jorgensen SH, et al. Does episiotomy prevent perineal trauma and pelvic floor relaxation? Online J Curr Clin Trials. 1992;10:29. Doc No 10:[6019 words; 65 paragraphs].
  • Ducarme G, Pizzoferrato AC, de Tayrac R, et al. [Perineal prevention and protection in obstetrics: CNGOF Clinical Practice Guidelines (short version)]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil Senol. 2018;46(12):893–899.
  • Korzeniewski SJ, Slaughter J, Lenski M, et al. The complex aetiology of cerebral palsy. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(9):528–543.
  • Harrison RF, Brennan M, North P, et al. Is routine episiotomy necessary? Br Med J (Clin Res ed). 1984;288(6435):1971–1975.
  • Larsson P-G, Platz-Christensen J-J, Bergman B, et al. Advantage or disadvantage of episiotomy compared with spontaneous perineal laceration. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1991;31(4):213–216.
  • Paris AE, Greenberg JA, Ecker JL, et al. Is an episiotomy necessary with a shoulder dystocia? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;205(3):217.e1–217.e3.
  • Baumann P, Hammoud AO, McNeeley SG, et al. Factors associated with anal sphincter laceration in 40,923 primiparous women. Int Urogynecol J. 2007;18(9):985–990.
  • Shiono P, Klebanof MA, Carey JC. Midline episiotomies: more harm than good? Obstet Gynecol. 1990;75(5):765–770.
  • Bansal RK, Tan WM, Ecker JL, et al. Is there a benefit to episiotomy at spontaneous vaginal delivery? A natural experiment. Am J Obstetr Gynecol. 1996;175(4):897–901.
  • Baghestan E, Irgens LM, Børdahl PE, et al. Trends in risk factors for obstetric anal sphincter injuries in Norway. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;116(1):25–34.
  • Räisänen SH, Vehviläinen-Julkunen K, Gissler M, et al. Lateral episiotomy protects primiparous but not multiparous women from obstetric anal sphincter rupture. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2009;88(12):1365–1372.
  • Sagi-Dain L, Bahous R, Caspin O, et al. No episiotomy versus selective lateral/mediolateral episiotomy (EPITRIAL): an interim analysis. Int Urogynecol J. 2018;29(3):415–423.
  • Verghese TS, Champaneria R, Kapoor DS, et al. Obstetric anal sphincter injuries after episiotomy: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Urogynecol J. 2016;27(10):1459–1467.
  • LaCross A, Groff M, Smaldone A. Obstetric anal sphincter injury and anal incontinence following vaginal birth: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Midwifery Women’s Health. 2015;60(1):37–47.
  • Drusany Staric K, Lukanovic A, Petrocnik P, et al. Impact of mediolateral episiotomy on incidence of obstetrical anal sphincter injury diagnosed by endoanal ultrasound. Midwifery. 2017;51:40–43.
  • Baksu B, Davas I, Akyol A, et al. Effect of timing of episiotomy repair on peripartum blood loss. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2008;65(3):169–173.
  • Fodstad K, Laine K, Staff AC. Different episiotomy techniques, postpartum perineal pain, and blood loss: an observational study. Int Urogynecol J. 2013;24(5):865–872.
  • Banta D, Thacker SB. The risks and benefits of episiotomy: a review. Birth (Berkeley, Calif). 1982;9(1):25–30.
  • Turmo M, Echevarria M, Rubio P, et al. Development of chronic pain after episiotomy. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2015;62(8):436–442.
  • Ejegård H, Ryding EL, Sjögren B. Sexuality after delivery with episiotomy: a long-term follow-up. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2008;66(1):1–7.
  • Chayachinda C, Titapant V, Ungkanungdecha A. Dyspareunia and sexual dysfunction after vaginal delivery in Thai primiparous women with episiotomy. J Sex Med. 2015;12(5):1275–1282.
  • Fodstad K, Staff AC, Laine K. Sexual activity and dyspareunia the first year postpartum in relation to degree of perineal trauma. Int Urogynecol J. 2016;27(10):1513–1523.
  • Fodstad K, Staff AC, Laine K. Effect of different episiotomy techniques on perineal pain and sexual activity 3 months after delivery. Int Urogynecol J. 2014;25(12):1629–1637.
  • Alperin M, Krohn MA, Parviainen K. Episiotomy and increase in the risk of obstetric laceration in a subsequent vaginal delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111(6):1274–1278.
  • Corrêa Junior MD, Passini Júnior R. Selective episiotomy: indications, techinique, and association with severe perineal lacerations. Rev Bras Ginecol Obstet. 2016;38(06):301–307.
  • Robinson JN, Norwitz ER, Cohen AP, et al. Episiotomy, operative vaginal delivery, and significant perineal trauma in nulliparous women. Am J Obstetr Gynecol. 1999;181(5):1180–1184.
  • Ecker JL, Tan WM, Bansal RK, et al. Is there a benefit to episiotomy at operative vaginal delivery? Observations over ten years in a stable population. Am J Obstetr Gynecol. 1997;176(2):411–414.
  • de Leeuw JW, de Wit C, Kuijken JP, et al. Mediolateral episiotomy reduces the risk for anal sphincter injury during operative vaginal delivery. Bjog. 2007;115(1):104–108.
  • Kudish B, Blackwell S, Mcneeley SG, et al. Operative vaginal delivery and midline episiotomy: a bad combination for the perineum. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195(3):749–754.
  • Bailit JL, Grobman WA, Rice MM, et al. Evaluation of delivery options for second stage events. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;214(5):638.e1–638.e10.
  • Beckmann MM, Stock OM. Antenatal perineal massage for reducing perineal trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;4:CD005123.
  • Aasheim V, Nilsen AB, Lukasse M, et al. Perineal techniques during the second stage of labour for reducing perineal trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;6(12):CD006672.
  • Demirel G, Golbasi Z. Effect of perineal massage on the rate of episiotomy and perineal tearing. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2015;131(2):183–186. Nov
  • Akbarzadeh M, Vaziri F, Farahmand M, et al. The effect of warm compress bistage intervention on the rate of episiotomy, perineal trauma, and postpartum pain intensity in primiparous women with delayed valsalva maneuver referring to the selected hospitals of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in 2012–2013. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2016;29(2):79–84.
  • Gupta JK, Hofmeyr GJ, Smyth R. Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;1:CD002006.
  • Lemos A, Amorim MM, Dornelas de Andrade A, et al. Pushing/bearing down methods for the second stage of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;3:CD009124.
  • Rusavy Z, Karbanova J, Kalis V. Timing of episiotomy and outcome of a non-instrumental vaginal delivery. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2016;95(2):190–196.
  • Béchard F, Geronimi J, Vieille P, et al. Are we performing episiotomies correctly? A study to evaluate French technique in a high-risk maternity unit. J Gynecol Obstetr Human Reproduc. 2018;47(7):331–338.
  • Stedenfeldt M, Pirhonen J, Blix E, et al. Episiotomy characteristics and risks for obstetric anal sphincter injuries: a case-control study. BJOG. 2012;119(6):724–730.
  • Fernando R, Williams A, Adams E. The management of third-and fourth-degree perineal tears. RCOG Green Top Guidelines. 2015;29:1–19.
  • Freeman RM, Hollands HJ, Barron LF, et al. Cutting a mediolateral episiotomy at the correct angle: evaluation of a new device, the Episcissors-60. Med Devices (Auckl). 2014;7:23–28.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.