Long-term cardio-metabolic effects after gestational diabetes: a review

References

• Ryan EA, Enns L. Role of gestational hormones in the induction of insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988;67(2):341–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lain K, Catalano PM. Metabolic changes in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2007;50(4):938–948.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Cianni G, Miccoli R, Volpe L, et al. Intermediate metabolism in normal pregnancy and in gestational diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2003;19(4):259–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan EA, Imes S, Liu D, et al. Defects in insulin secretion and action in women with a history of gestational diabetes. Diabetes. 1995;44(5):506–512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapolla A, Dalfrà MG, Mello G, et al. Early detection of insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function with simple tests indicates future derangements in late pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(3):876–880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reece EA, Leguizamón G, Wiznitzer A. Gestational diabetes: the need for a common ground. Lancet. 2009;373(9677):1789–1797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noctor E, Crowe C, Carmody LA, et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus by International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Groups criteria. Acta Diabetol. 2015;52(1):153–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(10):1862–1868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burlina S, Dalfrà MG, Lapolla A. Short- and long-term consequences for offspring exposed to maternal diabetes: a review. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019;32(4):687–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah BR, Retnakaran R, Booth GL. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in young women following gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(8):1668–1669.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retnakaran R, Shah BR. Mild glucose intolerance in pregnancy and risk of cardiovascular disease in young women: population-based cohort study. CMAJ. 2009;181(6–7):371–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobias DK, Stuart JJ, Li S, et al. Association of history of gestational diabetes with long-term cardiovascular disease risk in a large prospective cohort of US women. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(12):1735–1742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr DB, Utzschneider KM, Hull RL, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with a family history of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(9):2078–2083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goueslard K, Cottenet J, Mariet AS, et al. Early cardiovascular events in women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2016;15(1):15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Retnakaran R, Shah BR. Role of type 2 diabetes in determining retinal, renal and cardiovascular outcomes in women with previous gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(1):101–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkerson H. Pregnancy and the prediabetic state. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1959;82:219–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambrinoudaki I, Vlachou SA, Creatsas G. Genetics in gestational diabetes mellitus: association with incidence, severity, pregnancy outcome and response to treatment. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2010;6(6):393–396.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Konig M, Shuldiner AR. The genetic interface between gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25(1):36–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbour LA, McCurdy CE, Heranandez TL, et al. Cellular mechanisms for insulin resistance in normal pregnancy and gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2012;30:2.
   Google Scholar
• Bellamy L, Casas JB, Hingorani AD, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2009;373(9677):1773–1779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vounzoulaki E, Khunti K, Abner SC, et al. Progression to type 2 diabetes in women with a known history of gestational diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2020;369:m1361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ACOG Practice Bulletin – Obstetrics. ACOG Practice Bulletin No 137: gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122:406–416.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Standard of medical care in diabetes. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(Suppl. 1):S14–S31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hod M, Kapur A, Sacks DA, et al. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) Initiative on gestational diabetes mellitus: a pragmatic guide for diagnosis, management, and care. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2015;131(Suppl. 3):S173–S211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetes in pregnancy: management of diabetes and its complications from pre-conception to the postnatal period; 2016; [cited 2016 Jul 16]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg63
   Google Scholar
• Pastore I, Chiefari E, Vero E, et al. Postpartum glucose intolerance: an updated overview. Endocrine. 2018;59(3):481–494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalfrà MG, Burlina S, Del Vescovo GG, et al. Adherence to a follow-up program after gestational diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 2020;57(12):1473–1480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalfrà MG, Burlina S, Del Vescovo GG, et al. Genetics and epigenetics: new insight on gestational diabetes mellitus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2020;11:602477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalczyk AA, Dunbar JA, Janus ED, et al. Epigenetic markers to predict conversion from gestational diabetes to type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(6):2396–2404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenzie-Sampson S, Paradis G, Healy-Profitós J, et al. Gestational diabetes and risk of cardiovascular disease up to 25 years after pregnancy: a retrospective cohort study. Acta Diabetol. 2018;55(4):315–322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daly B, Toulis KA, Thomas N, et al. Increased risk of ischemic heart disease, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus, a target group in general practice for preventive interventions: a population-based cohort study. PLoS Med. 2018;15(1):e1002488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer CK, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia. 2019;62(6):905–914.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mordwinkin NM, Ouzounian JG, Yedigarova L, et al. Alteration of endothelial function markers in women with gestational diabetes and their fetuses. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2013;26(5):507–512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bo S, Valpreda S, Menato G, et al. Should we consider gestational diabetes a vascular risk factor? Atherosclerosis. 2007;194(2):e72–e79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe L, Cuccuru I, Lencioni C, et al. Early subclinical atherosclerosis in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(5):e32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gunderson EP, Chiang V, Pletcher MJ, et al. History of gestational diabetes mellitus and future risk of atherosclerosis in mid-life: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3(2):e000490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davenport MH, Goswami R, Shoemaker JK, et al. Influence of hyperglycemia during and after pregnancy on postpartum vascular function. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;302(6):R768–R775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fakhrzadeh H, Alatab S, Sharifi F, et al. Carotid intima media thickness, brachial flow mediated dilation and previous history of gestational diabetes mellitus. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2012;38(8):1057–1063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III), “Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report”. Circulation. 2002;106(25):3143–3144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakka HM, Laaksonen DE, Lakka TA, et al. The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. J Am Med Assoc. 2002;288(21):2709–2716.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burlina S, Dalfrà MG, Chilelli NC, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus and future cardiovascular risk: an update. Int J Endocrinol. 2016;2016:2070926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöholm Ä, Nyström T. Inflammation and the etiology of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2006;22(1):4–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinci B, Celtik A, Genc S, et al. Evaluation of postpartum carbohydrate intolerance and cardiovascular risk factors in women with gestational diabetes. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2011;27(5):361–367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinalski M, Telejko B, Kuźmicki M, et al. Tumor necrosis factor alpha system and plasma adiponectin concentration in women with gestational diabetes. Horm Metab Res. 2005;37(7):450–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retnakaran R, Hanley AJG, Raif N, et al. C-reactive protein and gestational diabetes: the central role of maternal obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(8):3507–3512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenzo-Almorós A, Hang T, Peiró C, et al. Predictive and diagnostic biomarkers for gestational diabetes and its associated metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2019;18(1):140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xuereb S, Magri CJ, Xuereb RA, et al. Gestational glycemic parameters and future cardiometabolic risk at medium-term follow up. Can J Diabetes. 2019;43(8):621–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aziz S, Munim TF, Fatima SS. Post-partum follow-up of women with gestational diabetes mellitus: effectiveness, determinants, and barriers. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2018;31(12):1607–1612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamel MS, Werner EF. Interventions to improve rate of diabetes testing postpartum in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep. 2017;17(2):1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: standards of medical care in diabetes-2020. Diabetes Care. 2020;43:S183–S192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith GN, Louis JM, Saade GR. Pregnancy and the postpartum period as an opportunity for cardiovascular risk identification and management. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(4):851–862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves M, Howse K, Pudwell J, et al. Pregnancy-related cardiovascular risk indicators: primary care approach to postpartum management and prevention of future disease. Can Fam Physician. 2019;65(12):883–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Gaal LF, Wauters MA, De Leeuw IH. The beneficial effects of modest weight loss on cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997;21:S5–S9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esposito K, Pontillo A, Di Palo C, et al. Effect of weight loss and lifestyle changes on vascular inflammatory markers in obese women: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;289(14):1799–1804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bao W, Tobias DK, Bowers K, et al. Physical activity and sedentary behaviors associated with risk of progression from gestational diabetes mellitus to type 2 diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(7):1047–1055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang C, Olsen SF, Hinkle SN, et al. Diabetes & Women's Health (DWH) Study: an observational study of long-term health consequences of gestational diabetes, their determinants and underlying mechanisms in the USA and Denmark. BMJ Open. 2019;9(4):e025517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li S, Zhu Y, Chavarro JE, et al. Healthful dietary patterns and the risk of hypertension among women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. Hypertension. 2016;67(6):1157–1165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrado F, Giunta L, Granese R, et al. Metabolic effects of breastfeeding in women with previous gestational diabetes diagnosed according to the IADPSG criteria. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019;32(2):225–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunderson EP, Lewis CE, Lin Y, et al. Lactation duration and progression to diabetes in women across the childbearing years: the 30-year CARDIA study. JAMA Intern Med. 2018;178(3):328–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuebe AM, Schwarz EB, Grewen K, et al. Duration of lactation and incidence of maternal hypertension: a longitudinal cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174(10):1147–1158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuebe A. Associations among lactation, maternal carbohydrate metabolism, and cardiovascular health. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2015;58(4):827–839.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar