Lignin valorisation: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) considerations for enabling Circular Bioeconomy

References

• Agrawal, A., N. Kaushik, and S. Biswas. 2014. “Derivatives and Applications of Lignin – An Insight.” SciTech Journal 1 (7): 30–36.
   Google Scholar
• Akizuki, S., H. Suzuki, M. Fujiwara, and T. Toda. 2023. “Impacts of Steam Explosion Pretreatment on Semi-Continuous Anaerobic Digestion of Lignin-Rich Submerged Macrophyte.” Journal of Cleaner Production 385: 135377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135377.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antikainen, R., C. Dalhammar, M. Hildén, J. Judl, T. Jääskeläinen, P. Kautto, S. Koskela, et al. 2017. “Renewal of Forest Based Manufacturing Towards a Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy.” Reports of the Finnish Environment Institute. URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10138/186080 (Last accessed: May 02, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Atabani, A. E., V. K. Tyagi, G. Fongaro, H. Treichel, A. Pugazhendhi, and A. T. Hoang. 2022. “Integrated Biorefineries, Circular bio-Economy, and Valorization of Organic Waste Streams with Respect to Bio-Products.” Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 565–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-02017-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckham, G. T., C. W. Johnson, E. M. Karp, D. Salvachúa, and D. R. Vardon. 2016. “Opportunities and Challenges in Biological Lignin Valorization.” Current Opinion in Biotechnology 42: 40–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.02.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behling, R., S. Valange, and G. Chatel. 2016. “Heterogeneous Catalytic Oxidation for Lignin Valorization Into Valuable Chemicals: What Results? What Limitations? What Trends?” Green Chemistry 18 (7): 1839–1854. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5GC03061G.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beis, S., S. Mukkamala, N. Hill, J. Joseph, C. Baker, B. Jensen, E. Stemmler, et al. 2010. “Fast Pyrolysis of Lignins.” BioResources 5 (3): 1408–1424. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.5.3.1408-1424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernier, E., C. Lavigne, and P. Y. Robidoux. 2013. “Life Cycle Assessment of Kraft Lignin for Polymer Applications.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 18 (2): 520–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0503-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bi, Y., X. Lei, G. Xu, H. Chen, and J. Hu. 2018. “Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis of Kraft Lignin Over Hierarchical HZSM-5 and Hβ Zeolites.” Catalysts 8 (2): 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal8020082.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilal, M., S. A. Qamar, M. Qamar, V. Yadav, M. J. Taherzadeh, S. S. Lam, and H. Iqbal. 2022. “Bioprospecting Lignin Biomass Into Environmentally Friendly Polymers – Applied Perspective to Reconcile Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy.” Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02600-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brebu, M., T. Tamminen, and I. Spiridon. 2013. “Thermal Degradation of Various Lignins by TG-MS/FTIR and Py-GC-MS.” Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 104: 531–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2013.05.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bugg, T. D., and R. Rahmanpour. 2015. “Enzymatic Conversion of Lignin Into Renewable Chemicals.” Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 29: 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.06.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carus, M., L. Dammer, and R. Essel. 2015. Quo Vadis, Cascading Use of Biomass. Policy Paper on Background Information on the Cascading Principle Provided by Nova-Institute. URL:http://biobased. eu/policy (Last accessed: 02/05/2019).
   Google Scholar
• Chen, W. H., S. Nižetić, R. Sirohi, Z. Huang, R. Luque, A. M. Papadopoulos, R. Sakthivel, X. P. Nguyen, and A. T. Hoang. 2022. “Liquid hot Water as Sustainable Biomass pre-Treatment Technique for Bioenergy Production: A Review.” Bioresource Technology 344: 126207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Z., and C. Wan. 2017. “Biological Valorization Strategies for Converting Lignin Into Fuels and Chemicals.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73: 610–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christoforou, E. A., and P. A. Fokaides. 2015. “A Review of Quantification Practices for Plant-Derived Biomass Potential.” International Journal of Green Energy 12 (4): 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2014.880147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Amato, D., N. Droste, B. Allen, M. Kettunen, K. Lähtinen, J. Korhonen, P. Leskinen, B. D. Matthies, and A. Toppinen. 2017. “Green, Circular, bio Economy: A Comparative Analysis of Sustainability Avenues.” Journal of Cleaner Production 168: 716–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, S. 2011. “Life Cycle Assessment of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 16 (3): 268–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-011-0264-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da Silva, E. B., M. Zabkova, J. D. Araújo, C. A. Cateto, M. F. Barreiro, M. N. Belgacem, and A. E. Rodrigues. 2009. “An Integrated Process to Produce Vanillin and Lignin-Based Polyurethanes from Kraft Lignin.” Chemical Engineering Research and Design 87 (9): 1276–1292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2009.05.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Wild, P. J., W. J. J. Huijgen, and H. J. Heeres. 2012. “Pyrolysis of Wheat Straw-Derived Organosolv Lignin.” Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 93: 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2011.10.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Wild, P., R. Van der Laan, A. Kloekhorst, and E. Heeres. 2009. “Lignin Valorisation for Chemicals and (Transportation) Fuels via (Catalytic) Pyrolysis and Hydrodeoxygenation.” Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy 28 (3): 461–469. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.10391.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Wild, P. J., R. R. van der Laan, and R. W. A. Wilberink. 2010. Thermolysis of Lignin for Value-Added Products. Petten: ECN.
   Google Scholar
• Díaz-Urrutia, C., W. C. Chen, C. O. Crites, J. Daccache, I. Korobkov, and R. T. Baker. 2015. “Towards Lignin Valorisation: Comparing Homogeneous Catalysts for the Aerobic Oxidation and Depolymerisation of Organosolv Lignin.” RSC Advances 5 (86): 70502–70511. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA15694G.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval, A., and M. Lawoko. 2014. “A Review on Lignin-Based Polymeric, Micro- and Nano-Structured Materials.” Reactive and Functional Polymers 85: 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2014.09.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2012. Innovating for Sustainable Growth A Bioeconomy for Europe. URL:https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/1f0d8515-8dc0-4435-ba53-9570e47dbd51 (Last accessed: May 02, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2015. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Closing the Loop – An EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy. COM(2015) 614. 2015. URL:https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A52015DC0614 (Last accessed: May 02, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2018. “A sustainable Bioeconomy for Europe: Strengthening the Connection between Economy, Society and the Environment.” Updated Bioeconomy Strategy. URL:https://ec.europa.eu/knowledge4policy/publication/sustainable-bioeconomy-europe-strengthening-connection-between-economy-society_en (Last accessed: May 02, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. 2009. Directive 2009/28/EC on the Promotion of the Use of Energy From Renewable Sources and Amending and Subsequently Repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
   Google Scholar
• Fan, J., T. N. Kalnes, M. Alward, J. Klinger, A. Sadehvandi, and D. R. Shonnard. 2011. “Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Using Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil.” Renewable Energy 36 (2): 632–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2010.06.045.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galkin, M. V., and J. S. Samec. 2016. “Lignin Valorization Through Catalytic Lignocellulose Fractionation: A Fundamental Platform for the Future Biorefinery.” ChemSusChem 9 (13): 1544–1558. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201600237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghaffar, S. H., and M. Fan. 2014. “Lignin in Straw and its Applications as an Adhesive.” International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 48: 92–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2013.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• González-García, S., B. Gullon, S. Rivas, G. Feijoo, and M. T. Moreira. 2016. “Environmental Performance of Biomass Refining Into High-Added Value Compounds.” Journal of Cleaner Production 120: 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosselink, R. J. A. 2011. Lignin as a Renewable Aromatic Resource for the Chemical Industry. Wageningen University and Research. ISBN: 978-94-6173-100-5.
   Google Scholar
• Gosselink, R. J., W. Teunissen, J. E. Van Dam, E. De Jong, G. Gellerstedt, E. L. Scott, and J. P. Sanders. 2012. “Lignin Depolymerisation in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide/Acetone/Water Fluid for the Production of Aromatic Chemicals.” Bioresource Technology 106: 173–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.11.121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosselink, R. J. A., J. E. G. van Dam, P. de Wild, W. Huijgen, T. Bridgwater, H. J. Heeres, A. Kloekhorst, E. L. Scott, and J. P. M. Sanders. 2011. “Valorisation of Lignin–Achievements of the LignoValue Project.” Proceedings 3rd Nordic Wood Biorefinery Conference, March 22-24, 2011, Stockholm, Sweden (pp. 165–170).
   Google Scholar
• Hetemäki, L., M. Hanewinkel, B. Muys, M. Ollikainen, M. Palahí, A. Trasobares, E. Aho, C. N. Ruiz, G. Persson, and J. Potoćnik. 2017. Leading the Way to a European Circular Bioeconomy Strategy (Vol. 5, p. 52). Joensuu, Finland: European Forest Institute. ISSN 2343-1237 (online).
   Google Scholar
• Hoang, A. T. 2021. “2-Methylfuran (MF) as a Potential Biofuel: A Thorough Review on the Production Pathway from Biomass, Combustion Progress, and Application in Engines.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 148: 111265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoang, A. T., Z. Huang, S. Nižetić, A. Pandey, X. P. Nguyen, R. Luque, H. C. Ong, Z. Said, and T. H. Le. 2022b. “Characteristics of Hydrogen Production from Steam Gasification of Plant-Originated Lignocellulosic Biomass and its Prospects in Vietnam.” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47 (7): 4394–4425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.091.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoang, A. T., H. C. Ong, I. R. Fattah, C. T. Chong, C. K. Cheng, R. Sakthivel, and Y. S. Ok. 2021. “Progress on the Lignocellulosic Biomass Pyrolysis for Biofuel Production Toward Environmental Sustainability.” Fuel Processing Technology 223: 106997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2021.106997.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoang, A. T., P. S. Varbanov, S. Nižetić, R. Sirohi, A. Pandey, R. Luque, and K. H. Ng. 2022a. “Perspective Review on Municipal Solid Waste-to-Energy Route: Characteristics, Management Strategy, and Role in Circular Economy.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 131897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131897.
   Google Scholar
• Holladay, J. E., J. F. White, J. J. Bozell, and D. Johnson. 2007. Top Value-Added Chemicals from Biomass-Volume II – Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Biorefinery Lignin (No. PNNL-16983). Pacific Northwest National Lab.(PNNL), Richland, WA (United States), Prepared for the US Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830. URL: https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-16983.pdf (Last accessed: May 02, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Huang, C., X. Jiang, X. Shen, J. Hu, W. Tang, X. Wu, A. Ragauskas, H. Jameel, X. Meng, and Q. Yong. 2022. “Lignin-enzyme Interaction: A Roadblock for Efficient Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosics.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 154: 111822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111822.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Standard Organization. 2006a. ISO 14040: Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework. URL:https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html (Last accessed: 02/05/2019).
   Google Scholar
• International Standard Organization. 2006b. ISO 14044: Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment – Requirements and Guidelines. url:https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html (Last accessed: 02/05/2019).
   Google Scholar
• Iribarren, D., J. F. Peters, and J. Dufour. 2012. “Life Cycle Assessment of Transportation Fuels from Biomass Pyrolysis.” Fuel 97: 812–821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.02.053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinert, M., and T. Barth. 2008. “Phenols from Lignin.” Chemical Engineering & Technology 31 (5): 736–745. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.200800073.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosbar, L. L., J. D. Gelorme, R. M. Japp, and W. T. Fotorny. 2000. “Introducing Biobased Materials Into the Electronics Industry.” Journal of Industrial Ecology 4 (3): 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1162/108819800300106401.
   Google Scholar
• Kumar, R., V. Strezov, H. Weldekidan, J. He, S. Singh, T. Kan, and B. Dastjerdi. 2020. “Lignocellulose Biomass Pyrolysis for bio-oil Production: A Review of Biomass pre-Treatment Methods for Production of Drop-in Fuels.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 123: 109763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kylili, A., E. Christoforou, P. A. Fokaides, and P. Polycarpou. 2016. “Multicriteria Analysis for the Selection of the Most Appropriate Energy Crops: The Case of Cyprus.” International Journal of Sustainable Energy 35 (1): 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2014.898640.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langholtz, M., M. Downing, R. Graham, F. Baker, A. Compere, W. Griffith, R. Boeman, and M. Keller. 2014. “Lignin-derived Carbon Fiber as a Co-Product of Refining Cellulosic Biomass.” SAE International Journal of Materials and Manufacturing 7 (1): 115–121. https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-9092.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, W. J., H. Jiang, and H. Q. Yu. 2015. “Thermochemical Conversion of Lignin to Functional Materials: A Review and Future Directions.” Green Chemistry 17 (11): 4888–4907. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5GC01054C.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llorach-Massana, P., E. Lopez-Capel, J. Peña, J. Rieradevall, J. I. Montero, and N. Puy. 2017. “Technical Feasibility and Carbon Footprint of Biochar Co-Production with Tomato Plant Residue.” Waste Management 67: 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.05.021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenz, P., and H. Zinke. 2005. “White Biotechnology: Differences in US and EU Approaches?” TRENDS in Biotechnology 23 (12): 570–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.10.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, R., Y. Xu, and X. Zhang. 2015. “Catalytic Oxidation of Biorefinery Lignin to Value-Added Chemicals to Support Sustainable Biofuel Production.” ChemSusChem 8 (1): 24–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201402503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metsä Group, Sustainability Report. 2019. URL:www.metsagroup.com (Last accessed: June 03, 2022).
   Google Scholar
• Modahl, I. S., and B. I. Vold. 2011. “The 2010 LCA of Cellulose, Ethanol, Lignin and Vanillin from Borregaard Sarpsborg.” Ostfold Research, Norway 78. https://norsus.no/wpcontent/uploads/or-3210-the-2010-lca-of-cellulose-ethanol-lignin-and-vanillin-from-borregaard-sarpsborg-final.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Mohan, S. V., J. A. Modestra, K. Amulya, S. K. Butti, and G. Velvizhi. 2016. “A Circular Bioeconomy with Biobased Products from CO2 Sequestration.” Trends in Biotechnology 34 (6): 506–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2016.02.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan, S. V., G. N. Nikhil, P. Chiranjeevi, C. N. Reddy, M. V. Rohit, A. N. Kumar, and O. Sarkar. 2016. “Waste Biorefinery Models Towards Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy: Critical Review and Future Perspectives.” Bioresource Technology 215: 2–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.03.130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montazeri, M., and M. J. Eckelman. 2016. “Life Cycle Assessment of Catechols from Lignin Depolymerization.” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 4 (3): 708–718. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00550.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muritala, K. B., and J. K. Adewole. 2022. “Recent Advances in the use of Lignocellulosic Biomass in Microbial Fuel Cells for Electricity Generation.” International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 1262–1278. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2022.2043859.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newton, A., F. Lescai, D. Carrez, M. Carus, J. Jilkova, A. Juhász, L. Lange, R. Mavsar, T. Pursula, and C. V. Ortega. 2017. “Expert Group Report. Review of the EU Bioeconomy Strategy and its Action Plan.” European Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. URL: https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/e5685a20-c9c9-11e7-8e69-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-51148419 (Last accessed: May 02, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Norberg, I., Y. Nordström, R. Drougge, G. Gellerstedt, and E. Sjöholm. 2013. “A New Method for Stabilizing Softwood Kraft Lignin Fibers for Carbon Fiber Production.” Journal of Applied Polymer Science 128 (6): 3824–3830. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.38588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parot, M., D. Rodrigue, and T. Stevanovic. 2022. “High Purity Softwood Lignin Obtained by an Eco-Friendly Organosolv Process.” Bioresource Technology Reports 17: 100880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2021.100880.
   Google Scholar
• Paul, M., N. K. Pandey, A. Banerjee, G. K. Shroti, P. Tomer, R. K. Gazara, H. Thatoi, T. Bhaskar, S. Hazra, and D. Ghosh. 2023. “An Insight Into Omics Analysis and Metabolic Pathway Engineering of Lignin-Degrading Enzymes for Enhanced Lignin Valorization.” Bioresource Technology 379: 129045.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pavlovic, I., Z. Knez, and M. Skerget. 2013. “Hydrothermal Reactions of Agricultural and Food Processing Wastes in Sub- and Supercritical Water: A Review of Fundamentals, Mechanisms, and State of Research.” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61: 8003–8025. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf401008a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourhashem, G., P. R. Adler, A. J. McAloon, and S. Spatari. 2013. “Cost and Greenhouse Gas Emission Trade-Offs of Alternative Uses of Lignin for Second Generation Ethanol.” Environmental Research Letters 8 (2): 025021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/025021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragauskas, A. J., G. T. Beckham, M. J. Biddy, R. Chandra, F. Chen, M. F. Davis, B. H. Davison, et al. 2014. “Lignin Valorization: Improving Lignin Processing in the Biorefinery.” Science 344 (6185): 1246843. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1246843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rinaldi, R., R. Jastrzebski, M. T. Clough, J. Ralph, M. Kennema, P. C. Bruijnincx, and B. M. Weckhuysen. 2016. “Paving the Way for Lignin Valorisation: Recent Advances in Bioengineering, Biorefining and Catalysis.” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 55 (29): 8164–8215. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201510351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saake, B., and R. Lehnen. 2003. “Lignin.” Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a15_305.pub3.
   Google Scholar
• Schuck, S. 2006. “Biomass as an Energy Source.” International Journal of Environmental Studies 63 (6): 823–835. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207230601047222.
   Google Scholar
• Smolarski, N. 2012. “High-value Opportunities for Lignin: Unlocking its Potential.” Frost & Sullivan 1: 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Solantausta, Y., J. Lehto, A. Oasmaa, and L. Kjäldman. 2013. “Status of Fast Pyrolysis bio-oil Technologies.” 21st European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, EUBCE 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Strassberger, Z., S. Tanase, and G. Rothenberg. 2014. “The Pros and Cons of Lignin Valorisation in an Integrated Biorefinery.” RSC Advances 4 (48): 25310–25318. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA04747H.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, S. C., D. Sun, H. Y. Li, X. F. Cao, S. N. Sun, and J. L. Wen. 2021. “Revealing the Topochemical and Structural Changes of Poplar Lignin During a two-Step Hydrothermal Pretreatment Combined with Alkali Extraction.” Industrial Crops and Products 168: 113588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian, J. H., A. M. Pourcher, T. Bouchez, E. Gelhaye, and P. Peu. 2014. “Occurrence of Lignin Degradation Genotypes and Phenotypes among Prokaryotes.” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 98 (23): 9527–9544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-6142-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tustin, J. 2007. Black Liquor Gasification. Summary and Conclusions from the IEA Bioenergy ExCo54 Workshop, IEA Bioenergy Secreariat, Rotorua New Zealand, pp: 1-12.
   Google Scholar
• Vallios, I., T. Tsoutsos, and G. Papadakis. 2016. “An Applied Methodology for Assessment of the Sustainability of Biomass District Heating Systems.” International Journal of Sustainable Energy 35 (3): 267–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2014.895005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, X., S. Leng, J. Bai, H. Zhou, X. Zhong, G. Zhuang, and J. Wang. 2015. “Role of pre-Treatment with Acid and Base on the Distribution of the Products Obtained via Lignocellulosic Biomass Pyrolysis.” RSC Advances 5 (32): 24984–24989. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA15426F.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, S., Z. Li, X. Bai, W. Yi, and P. Fu. 2018. “Catalytic Pyrolysis of Lignin with Red Mud Derived Hierarchical Porous Catalyst for Alkyl-Phenols and Hydrocarbons Production.” Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 136: 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2018.10.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, C., R. A. D. Arancon, J. Labidi, and R. Luque. 2014. “Lignin Depolymerisation Strategies: Towards Valuable Chemicals and Fuels.” Chemical Society Reviews 43 (22): 7485–7500. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CS00235K.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, T. Q., F. Xu, and R. C. Sun. 2013. “Role of Lignin in a Biorefinery: Separation Characterization and Valorization.” Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 88 (3): 346–352. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.3996.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zabaniotou, A. 2018. “Redesigning a Bioenergy Sector in EU in the Transition to Circular Waste – Based Bioeconomy – A Multidisciplinary Review.” Journal of Cleaner Production 177: 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeren, F., and A. E. Hizarci. 2021. “Biomass Energy Consumption and Financial Development: Evidence from Some Developing Countries.” International Journal of Sustainable Energy 40 (9): 858–868. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2021.1876689.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, G. 2018. “Assessment of Potential Biomass Energy Production in China Towards 2030 and 2050.” International Journal of Sustainable Energy 37 (1): 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2016.1231677.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, M., J. Jing, Y. Zhu, X. Yang, X. Wang, and Z. Wang. 2016. “Preparation and Performance of Lignin–Phenol–Formaldehyde Adhesives.” International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 64: 163–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2015.10.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar