465
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Research

Bacterial co-infections, secondary infections and antimicrobial use among hospitalized COVID-19 patients in the sixth wave in Pakistan: findings and implications

ORCID Icon, , , , ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 229-240 | Received 05 Jun 2023, Accepted 15 Nov 2023, Published online: 22 Jan 2024

References

  • Salman M, Mustafa ZU, Khan TM, et al. How prepared was Pakistan for the COVID-19 outbreak? Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2020;14(3):e44–e5. doi: 10.1017/dmp.2020.247
  • Mueed AA, Abdullah M, Kazmi T, et al. School closures help reduce the spread of COVID-19: a pre- and post-intervention analysis in Pakistan. PLOS Glob Public Health. 2022;2(4):e0000266. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000266
  • Iqbal M, Zahidie A, Jumani Y, et al. Responding to the covid 19 pandemic in a resource constrained country: the case of Pakistan. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad. 2021;33(Suppl 1):S810–S7.
  • Dawn. Pakistan among pioneers of ‘smart lockdown’ approach, says PM Imran. 2020. Available from: https://www.dawn.com/news/1561766;
  • Usmani BA, Ali M, Hasan MA, et al. The impact of disease control measures on the spread of COVID-19 in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. PLoS One. 2021;16(11):e0260129. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260129
  • Imran M, Khan S, Khan S, et al. COVID-19 situation in Pakistan: a broad overview. Respirology. 2021;26(9):891–892. doi: 10.1111/resp.14093
  • Government of Pakistan. National Command and operations centers (NCOC). Guidelines. Available from: https://covid.gov.pk/
  • United Nations Pakistan. BRIEF UNITED NATIONS RESPONSE to COVID-19 in PAKISTAN 2020 Oct 7. Available from: https://pakistan.un.org/sites/default/files/2020-10/COVID-19brief_oct2020_v3.pdf
  • Ramzan K, Shafiq S, Raees I, et al. Co-infections, secondary infections, and Antimicrobial Use in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 during the first five Waves of the Pandemic in Pakistan findings and implications. Antibiotics. 2022;11(6):789. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11060789
  • Talic S, Shah S, Wild H, et al. Effectiveness of public health measures in reducing the incidence of covid-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and COVID-19 mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2021;375:e068302. doi: 10.1136/bmj-2021-068302
  • Ayouni I, Maatoug J, Dhouib W, et al. Effective public health measures to mitigate the spread of COVID-19: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1015. doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-11111-1
  • Rahim S, Dhrolia M, Qureshi R, et al. A comparative study of the first and second waves of COVID-19 in hemodialysis patients from Pakistan. Cureus. 2022;14(1):e21512. doi: 10.7759/cureus.21512
  • Shahid R, Zeb S. Second wave of COVID-19 pandemic: its deleterious and mortal repercussion in Pakistan. J Rawalpindi Med College. 2020;24(4):288–289. doi: 10.37939/jrmc.v24i4.1554
  • WHO. COVID-19. Pakistan 2022. Available from: https://covid19.who.int/region/emro/country/pk
  • Kamran K, Ali A. Challenges and strategies for Pakistan in the third wave of COVID-19: a mini review. Front Public Health. 2021;9:690820. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.690820
  • Basheer A, Zahoor I. Genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 divulge B.1, B.1.36, and B.1.1.7 as the most dominant lineages in first, second, and third wave of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Pakistan. Microorganisms. 2021;9(12):2609. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9122609
  • Hashim A. Pakistan’s deadliest day since COVID pandemic began, curbs mulled - at least 201 deaths reported in the past 24 hours as the country grapples with a surge in infections since early. Mar 2021. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/28/pakistans-deadliest-day-since-covid-pandemic-began-curbs-mulled
  • UNICEF. Pakistan humanitarian situation report no. 28. 2021. https://www.unicef.org/media/107031/file/%20Pakistan-Humanitarian-sitRep-No28-31-August-2021.pdf
  • Geo News. COVID-19 situation continues to worsen in Pakistan amid fifth wave. 2021. Available from: https://www.geo.tv/latest/394761-covid-19-situation-continues-to-worsen-in-pakistan-amid-fifth-wavepdf
  • Geo News. Pakistan records second-highest daily COVID-19 case count since pandemic started in 2020. 2021. https://www.geo.tv/latest/394264-pakistan-records-second-highest-daily-count-since-pandemics-emergence-in-2020
  • Mirza Z. The sixth wave. 2022. Available from: https://www.dawn.com/news/1697634
  • Government of Pakistan. National Command and operations centers (NCOC). COVID-19 situation. 2023. Available from: https://covid.gov.pk/
  • Kamran SH, Mustafa ZU, Rao AZ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection pattern, transmission and treatment: multi-center study in low to middle-income districts hospitals in Punjab, Pakistan. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2021;34(3(Supplementary):1135–1142.
  • Abena PM, Decloedt EH, Bottieau E, et al. Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19 in Africa: caution for inappropriate off-label use in healthcare settings. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;102(6):1184–1188. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0290
  • Abubakar AR, Sani IH, Godman B, et al. Systematic review on the therapeutic options for COVID-19: clinical evidence of drug efficacy and implications. Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:4673–4695. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S289037
  • Dyer O. Covid-19: remdesivir has little or no impact on survival, WHO trial shows. BMJ. 2020;371:m4057. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m4057
  • Horby P, Mafham M, Linsell L, et al. Effect of Hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(21):2030–2040.
  • Mustafa ZU, Kow CS, Salman M, et al. Pattern of medication utilization in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in three district headquarters hospitals in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Explor Res Clin Soc Pharm. 2022;5:100101. doi: 10.1016/j.rcsop.2021.100101
  • Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson JR, et al. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(8):693–704.
  • Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, et al. Pharmacologic treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1824–1836. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.6019
  • Scavone C, Brusco S, Bertini M, et al. Current pharmacological treatments for COVID-19: what’s next? Br J Pharmacol. 2020;177(21):4813–4824. doi: 10.1111/bph.15072
  • WHO. Clinical management of COVID-19: interim guidance. 2020 May 27. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332196
  • Government of Pakistan. Ministry of National Health Services, regulations and coordination. Clinical management guidelines for COVID-19 infections. 2020. Available from: https://nhsrc.gov.pk/SiteImage/Misc/files/20200704%20Clinical%20Management%20Guidelines%20for%20COVID-19%20infections_1203.pdf
  • Langford BJ, So M, Raybardhan S, et al. Bacterial co-infection and secondary infection in patients with COVID-19: a living rapid review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(12):1622–9. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.016
  • Langford BJ, So M, Raybardhan S, et al. Antibiotic prescribing in patients with COVID-19: rapid review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(4):520–531. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.12.018
  • Alshaikh FS, Godman B, Sindi ON, et al. Prevalence of bacterial coinfection and patterns of antibiotics prescribing in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2022;17(8):e0272375. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272375
  • Chowdhury K, Haque M, Nusrat N, et al. Management of children admitted to hospitals across Bangladesh with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 and the implications for the future: a nationwide cross-sectional study. Antibiotics. 2022;11(1):105. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11010105
  • Rawson TM, Moore LSP, Zhu N, et al. Bacterial and fungal coinfection in individuals with coronavirus: a rapid review to support COVID-19 antimicrobial prescribing. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(9):2459–2468. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa530
  • Ul Mustafa Z, Salman M, Aldeyab M, et al. Antimicrobial consumption among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Pakistan. SN Compr Clin Med. 2021;3(8):1–5. doi: 10.1007/s42399-021-00966-5
  • Al-Hadidi SH, Alhussain H, Abdel Hadi H, et al. The spectrum of antibiotic prescribing during COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic literature review. Microb Drug Resist. 2021;27(12):1705–1725. doi: 10.1089/mdr.2020.0619
  • Mustafa ZU, Saleem MS, Ikram MN, et al. Co-infections and antimicrobial use among hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Punjab, Pakistan: findings from a multicenter, point prevalence survey. Pathog Glob Health. 2022;116(7):421–427. doi: 10.1080/20477724.2021.1999716
  • Akhtar H, Akhtar S, Rahman F-U, et al. An overview of the treatment options used for the management of COVID-19 in Pakistan: retrospective observational study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2021;7(5):e28594–e. doi: 10.2196/28594
  • Saleem Z, Haseeb A, Godman B, et al. Point prevalence survey of antimicrobial use during the COVID-19 pandemic among different hospitals in Pakistan: findings and implications. Antibiotics. 2023;12(1):70. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12010070
  • Mustafa ZU, Khan AH, Harun SN, et al. Antibiotic overprescribing among Neonates and children hospitalized with COVID-19 in Pakistan and the implications. Antibiotics. 2023;12(4):646. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12040646
  • Langford BJ, So M, Simeonova M, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Microbe. 2023;4(3):e179–e91. doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(22)00355-X
  • Garcia-Vidal C, Sanjuan G, Moreno-García E, et al. Incidence of co-infections and superinfections in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(1):83–88. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.041
  • Iacovelli A, Oliva A, Siccardi G, et al. Risk factors and effect on mortality of superinfections in a newly established COVID-19 respiratory sub-intensive care unit at University Hospital in Rome. BMC Pulm Med. 2023;23(1):30. doi: 10.1186/s12890-023-02315-9
  • Daria S, Islam MR. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics for COVID-19 treatment in South Asian Countries is a threat for future pandemics due to antibiotic resistance. Clin Pathol. 2022;15:2632010x221099889. doi: 10.1177/2632010X221099889
  • Choudhury S, Medina-Lara A, Smith R. Antimicrobial resistance and the COVID-19 pandemic. Bullet World Health Organ. 2022;100(5):295–A. doi: 10.2471/BLT.21.287752
  • Hsu J. How COVID-19 is accelerating the threat of antimicrobial resistance. BMJ. 2020;369:m1983. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m1983
  • CDC. COVID-19 reverses progress in fight against antimicrobial resistance in U.S. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0712-Antimicrobial-Resistance.html
  • CDC. Special report. COVID-19 - U.S. IMPACT on ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/pdf/covid19-impact-report-508.pdf
  • Getahun H, Smith I, Trivedi K, et al. Tackling antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 pandemic. Bull World Health Organ. 2020;98(7):442–a. doi: 10.2471/BLT.20.268573
  • Tomczyk S, Taylor A, Brown A, et al. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the surveillance, prevention and control of antimicrobial resistance: a global survey. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2021;76(11):3045–3058. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkab300
  • Knight GM, Glover RE, McQuaid CF, et al. Antimicrobial resistance and COVID-19: intersections and implications. Elife. 2021;10:10. doi: 10.7554/eLife.64139
  • Murray CJL, Ikuta KS, Sharara F. Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis. Lancet. 2022;399(10325):629–655. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0
  • Bilal H, Khan MN, Rehman T, et al. Antibiotic resistance in Pakistan: a systematic review of past decade. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):244. doi: 10.1186/s12879-021-05906-1
  • Qamar FN, Yousafzai MT, Dehraj IF, et al. Antimicrobial Resistance in Typhoidal Salmonella: Surveillance for Enteric Fever in Asia Project, 2016-2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(Suppl 3):S276–s84. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1323
  • Akram J, Khan AS, Khan HA, et al. Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid: evolution, prevention, and its management. Biomed Res Int. 2020;2020:1–7. doi: 10.1155/2020/6432580
  • Ministry of National Health Services Regulations & Coordination Government of Pakistan. National AMR Action Plan for Pakistan. 2017. Available from: https://www.nih.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/AMR-National-Action-Plan-Pakistan.pdf
  • Saleem Z, Godman B, Azhar F, et al. Progress on the national action plan of Pakistan on antimicrobial resistance (AMR): a narrative review and the implications. Exp Rev Anti-Infective Ther. 2022;20(1):71–93. doi: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1935238
  • Saleem Z, Hassali MA, Hashmi FK. Pakistan’s national action plan for antimicrobial resistance: translating ideas into reality. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(10):1066–7. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30516-4
  • Sharland M, Pulcini C, Harbarth S, et al. Classifying antibiotics in the WHO essential medicines list for optimal use-be AWaRe. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):18–20. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30724-7
  • Sharland M, Gandra S, Huttner B, et al. Encouraging AWaRe-ness and discouraging inappropriate antibiotic use-the new 2019 essential medicines list becomes a global antibiotic stewardship tool. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(12):1278–1280. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30532-8
  • Klein EY, Milkowska-Shibata M, Tseng KK, et al. Assessment of WHO antibiotic consumption and access targets in 76 countries, 2000-15: an analysis of pharmaceutical sales data. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):107–115. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30332-7
  • Pauwels I, Versporten A, Drapier N, et al. Hospital antibiotic prescribing patterns in adult patients according to the WHO Access, watch and reserve classification (AWaRe): results from a worldwide point prevalence survey in 69 countries. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2021;76(6):1614–1624. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkab050
  • Sulis G, Sayood S, Katukoori S, et al. Exposure to World Health Organization’s AWaRe antibiotics and isolation of multidrug resistant bacteria: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28(9):1193–1202. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2022.03.014
  • Telles JP, Yamada CH, Dario TM, et al. Impact of an antimicrobial stewardship program in a COVID-19 reference hospital according to the AWaRe classification. Am J Infect Control. 2022;50(10):1182–1184. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2022.07.010
  • Mustafa ZU, Tariq S, Iftikhar Z, et al. Predictors and outcomes of Healthcare-Associated Infections among patients with COVID-19 admitted to intensive Care units in Punjab, Pakistan findings and implications. Antibiotics. 2022;11(12):1806. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11121806
  • Mustafa ZU, Khan AH, Salman M, et al. Antimicrobial utilization among neonates and children: a multicenter point prevalence study from Leading Children’s Hospitals in Punjab, Pakistan. Antibiotics. 2022;11(8):1056. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11081056
  • Mustafa ZU, Salman M, Yasir M, et al. Antibiotic consumption among hospitalized neonates and children in Punjab province, Pakistan. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2022;20(6):931–939. doi: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1986388
  • WHO. Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification. 2021. Available from: https://www.who.int/tools/atc-ddd-toolkit/atc-classification
  • Arshad F, Saleem S, Tahir R, et al. Four year trend of antimicrobial susceptibility of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in a tertiary care hospital, Lahore. J Pak Med Assoc. 2022;72(2):296–299. doi: 10.47391/JPMA.20-509
  • Saeed DK, Farooqi J, Shakoor S, et al. Antimicrobial resistance among GLASS priority pathogens from Pakistan: 2006-2018. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):1231. doi: 10.1186/s12879-021-06795-0
  • Seaton RA, Gibbons CL, Cooper L, et al. Survey of antibiotic and antifungal prescribing in patients with suspected and confirmed COVID-19 in Scottish hospitals. J Infect. 2020;81(6):952–960. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.09.024
  • Avdeev S, Rachina S, Belkova Y, et al. Antimicrobial prescribing patterns in patients with COVID-19 in Russian multi-field hospitals in 2021: results of the global-PPS project. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2022;7(5):75. doi: 10.3390/tropicalmed7050075
  • Hamada S, Tokuda Y, Honda H, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of antibiotic prescription for acute COVID-19 patients in Japan. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):22340. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-26780-0
  • Cong W, Stuart B, AI N, et al. Antibiotic use and bacterial infection in COVID-19 patients in the second phase of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: a scoping review. Antibiotics. 2022;11(8):991. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11080991
  • Kamara IF, Kumar AMV, Maruta A, et al. Antibiotic Use in suspected and confirmed COVID-19 patients admitted to Health Facilities in Sierra Leone in 2020–2021: practice does not follow policy. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(7):4005. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19074005
  • Mudenda S, Nsofu E, Chisha P, et al. Prescribing patterns of antibiotics according to the WHO AWaRe classification during the COVID-19 Pandemic at a teaching hospital in Lusaka, Zambia: implications for strengthening of antimicrobial stewardship programmes. Pharmacoepidemiology. 2023;2(1):42–53. doi: 10.3390/pharma2010005
  • Sharland M, Zanichelli V, Ombajo LA, et al. The WHO essential medicines list AWaRe book: from a list to a quality improvement system. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28(12):1533–1535. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2022.08.009
  • Zanichelli V, Sharland M, Cappello B, et al. The WHO AWaRe (access, watch, reserve) antibiotic book and prevention of antimicrobial resistance. Bull World Health Organ. 2023;101(4):290–296. doi: 10.2471/BLT.22.288614
  • Atif M, Ihsan B, Malik I, et al. Antibiotic stewardship program in Pakistan: a multicenter qualitative study exploring medical doctors’ knowledge, perception and practices. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):374. doi: 10.1186/s12879-021-06043-5
  • Ashraf S, Ashraf S, Ashraf M, et al. Knowledge, attitude, and practice of clinicians about antimicrobial stewardship and resistance among hospitals of Pakistan: a multicenter cross-sectional study. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022;29(6):8382–8392. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-16178-2
  • Cox JA, Vlieghe E, Mendelson M, et al. Antibiotic stewardship in low- and middle-income countries: the same but different? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017;23(11):812–818. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.07.010
  • Otieno PA, Campbell S, Maley S, et al. A systematic review of pharmacist-led antimicrobial stewardship programs in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Clin Pract. 2022;2022:3639943. doi: 10.1155/2022/3639943
  • Akpan MR, Isemin NU, Udoh AE, et al. Implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programmes in African countries: a systematic literature review. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2020;22:317–324. doi: 10.1016/j.jgar.2020.03.009
  • Siachalinga L, Mufwambi W, Lee IH. Impact of antimicrobial stewardship interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing for hospital inpatients in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hosp Infect. 2022;129:124–143. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2022.07.031
  • Godman B, Egwuenu A, Haque M, et al. Strategies to improve antimicrobial utilization with a special focus on developing countries. Life (Basel). 2021;11(6):528. doi: 10.3390/life11060528
  • Haseeb A, Saleem Z, Maqadmi AF, et al. Ongoing strategies to improve antimicrobial utilization in hospitals across the middle East and North Africa (MENA): findings and implications. Antibiotics. 2023;12(5):827. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12050827
  • Borde K, Medisetty MK, Muppala BS, et al. Impact of an Antimicrobial Stewardship Intervention on Usage of Antibiotics in coronavirus disease-2019 at a tertiary care teaching hospital in India. IJID Regions. 2022;3:15–20. doi: 10.1016/j.ijregi.2022.02.003
  • Nampoothiri V, Sudhir AS, Joseph MV, et al. Mapping the implementation of a clinical pharmacist-driven antimicrobial stewardship programme at a tertiary care centre in South India. Antibiotics. 2021;10(2):220. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics10020220
  • Saleem Z, Haseeb A, Abuhussain SSA, et al. Antibiotic Susceptibility Surveillance in the Punjab Province of Pakistan: findings and implications. Medicina. 2023;59(7):1215. doi: 10.3390/medicina59071215