529
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

“Everything Else is Public Relations” How Rural Journalists Draw the Boundary Between Journalism and Public Relations in Rural Communities

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

References

  • Abernathy, P. M. (2018). The expanding news desert. Center for Innovation and Sustainability in Local Media, School of Media and Journalism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
  • Abernathy, P. M. (2022). The state of local news. Medill Local News Initiative. https://localnewsinitiative.northwestern.edu/research/state-of-local-news/report
  • Anderson, W. B. (2000). Sports page boosterism: Atlanta and its newspapers accomplish the unprecedented. American Journalism, 17(3), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/08821127.2000.10739254
  • Barnoy, A. (2022). An island of reliability in a sea of misinformation? Understanding PR-journalists relations in times of epistemic crisis. Journal of Public Relations Research, 34(3–4), 89–108.
  • Belair-Gagnon, V., & Holton, A. E. (2018). Strangers to the game? Interlopers, intralopers, and shifting news production. Media and Communication, 6(4), 70–78. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v6i4.1490
  • Benson, R. (1999). Field theory in comparative context: A new paradigm for media studies. Theory and Society, 28(3), 463–498. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006982529917
  • Benson, R. (2004). Bringing the sociology of media back in. Political Communication, 21(3), 275–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600490481299
  • Bentele, G. (2002). Parasitism or symbiosis? the intereffication model under discussion. In S. Eskelinen, T. Saranen & T. Tuhkio (Eds.), Spanning the Boundaries of Communication (pp. 13–29). University of Jyväskylä.
  • Burd, G. (1977). The selling of the sunbelt: Civic boosterism in the media. In D. C. Perry & A. J. Watkins (Eds.), The rise of sunbelt cities (pp. 129–149). Sage.
  • Burd, G. (2008). The mediated metropolis as medium and message. International Communication Gazette, 70(3–4), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048508089948
  • Cancel, A. E., Cameron, G. T., Sallot, L. M., & Mitrook, M. A. (1997). It depends: A contingency theory of accommodation in public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 9(1), 31–63. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr0901_02
  • Carey, C. (2020). Local news and community resiliency in Appalachia. Center for Journalism & Liberty. https://www.journalismliberty.org/publications/local-news-and-community-resiliency-in-appalachia
  • Carlson, M. (2015). Metajournalistic discourse and the meanings of journalism: Definitional control, boundary work, and legitimation. Communication Theory, 26(4), 349–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/comt.12088
  • Carlson, M., & Lewis, S. C. (2019). Boundary work. In K. Wahl-Jorgensen & T. Hanitzsch (Eds.), The handbook of journalism studies (pp. 123–135). Routledge.
  • Caves, R. W. (2005). Encyclopedia of the city. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203484234
  • Christians, C. G., Glasser, T., McQuail, D., Nordenstreng, K., & White, R. A. (2010). Normative theories of the media: Journalism in democratic societies. University of Illinois Press.
  • Costa, C., & Murphy, M. (Eds.). (2015). Bourdieu, habitus and social research: The art of application. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137496928
  • Coulson, D. C., Lacy, S., & Riffe, D. (2014). Group ownership increases among weekly newspapers. Newspaper Research Journal, 35(1), 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953291403500104
  • Cutlip, S. M. (2013). Public relations history: From the 17th to the 20th century: The antecedents. Routledge.
  • Darr, J. P., Hitt, M. P., & Dunaway, J. L. (2021). Home style opinion: How local newspapers can slow polarization. Elements in Politics and Communication. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108950930
  • Duffy, M., Thorson, E., & Vultee, F. (2015). All communication is persuasive: Exploding the myth of objectivity. In Persuasion ethics today (pp. 28–42). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315651309
  • Edwards, L. (2006). Rethinking power in public relations. Public Relations Review, 32(3), 229–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.05.013
  • Fargen Walsh, J., & Martin, J. (2021). A study of retention and recruitment at Southern and Midwestern weekly U.S. newspapers. Grassroots Editor, 62(2), 1–13.
  • Fioroni, S. (2022, May 19). Local news most trusted in keeping americans informed about their communities. Knight Foundation. https://knightfoirundation.org/articles/local-news-most-trusted-in-keeping-americans-informed-about-their-communities/
  • Friedland, L., Napoli, P., Ognyanova, K., Weil, C., & Wilson, E. J., III. (2012). Review of the literature regarding critical information needs of the American public. Federal Communications Commission.
  • Fröhlich, R., Koch, T., & Obermaier, M. (2013). What’s the harm in moonlighting? A qualitative survey on the role conflicts of freelance journalists with secondary employment in the field of PR. Media, Culture and Society, 35(7), 809–829. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443713495076
  • Gandy, O. (1982). Beyond agenda setting: Information subsidies and public policy. Ablex.
  • Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Strategies for qualitative research (grounded theory). Taylor & Francis eBooks DRM Free Collection.
  • Griffin, R. J., Dunwoody, S., & Gehrmann, C. (1995). The effects of community pluralism on press coverage of health risks from local environmental contamination. Risk Analysis, 15(4), 449–458. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00337.x
  • Grunig, J. E. (1983, August 6–9). Organizations, environments, and models of public relations. [Conference session]. Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Corvallis, OR, United States.
  • Grunig, J. E., & Grunig, L. A. (2008). Excellence theory in public relations: Past, present, and future. In A. Zerfass, B. Van Ruler, & K. Sriramesh (Eds.), Public relations research (pp. 327–347). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-90918-9_22
  • Guaglione, S. (2021, September 20). ‘Quit your f – King job’: How the pandemic has pushed journalists to exit the industry. Digiday. https://digiday.com/media/quit-your-f-king-job-how-the-pandemic-has-pushed-journalists-to-exit-the-industry/
  • Gutsche, R. E., Jr. (2015). Boosterism as banishment: Identifying the power function of local, business news and coverage of city spaces. Journalism Studies, 16(4), 497–512. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.924730
  • Gutsche, R. E., & Hess, K. (2018). Geographies of journalism: The imaginative power of place in making digital news. Routledge.
  • Hansen, E. K., & Hansen, G. L. (2011). Newspaper improves reader satisfaction by refocusing on local issues. Newspaper Research Journal, 32(1), 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953291103200110
  • Hardin, M. (2005). Survey finds boosterism, freebies remain problem for newspaper sports departments. Newspaper Research Journal, 26(1), 66–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953290502600108
  • Hazleton, V. (2006). Toward a theory of public relations competence. In C. H. Botan & V. Hazleton (Eds.), Public relations theory II (pp. 175–196). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Hess, K. (2015). Making connections: ‘Mediated’ social capital and the small-town press. Journalism Studies, 16(4), 482–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.922293
  • Hmielowski, J. D., Heffron, E., Ma, Y., & Munroe, M. A. (2021). You’ve lost that trusting feeling: Diminishing trust in the news media in rural versus urban U.S. communities. The Social Science Journal, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2021.1969510
  • Holcomb, J. (2018, September 27). Digital adaptation in local news. Tow Center for Digital Journalism. https://www.cjr.org/tow_center_reports/digital-adaptation-in-local-news.php
  • Holtzhausen, D. R. (2005). Public relations practice and political change in South Africa. Public Relations Review, 31(3), 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2005.05.011
  • Ihlen, Ø. (2005). The power of social capital: Adapting Bourdieu to the study of public relations. Public Relations Review, 31(4), 492–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2005.08.007
  • Jenkins, J. M. (2016). The good life: The construction of imagined communities in city magazines. Journalism Studies, 17(3), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.982942
  • Jenkins, J., & Nielsen, R. K. (2020). Preservation and evolution: Local newspapers as ambidextrous organizations. Journalism, 21(4), 472–488. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919886421
  • Kaniss, P. (1991). Making local news. University of Chicago Press.
  • Karppinen, K., & Moe, H. (2016). What we talk about when talk about “media independence”. Javnost - The Public, 23(2), 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2016.1162986
  • Kim, E., & Lowrey, W. (2018). Does local news side with local organizations? A case study of boosterism and dependence on local and national sources. International Journal of Sport Communication, 11(1), 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2017-0079
  • Knight, W. M., & Sweetser, K. D. (2021). Mind the gap: Understanding public relations competence in the eyes of practitioners and the dominant coalition. Public Relations Review, 47(2), 102037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2021.102037
  • Koerber, A., & McMichael, L. (2008). Qualitative sampling methods: A primer for technical communicators. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 22(4), 454–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1050651908320362
  • Lehman-Wilzig, S. N., & Seletzky, M. (2010). Hard news, soft news, ‘general’ news: The necessity and utility of an intermediate classification. Journalism, 11(1), 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884909350642
  • Leupold, A., Klinger, U., & Jarren, O. (2018). Imagining the city: How local journalism depicts social cohesion. Journalism Studies, 19(7), 960–982. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2016.1245111
  • Lindgren, A., Corbett, J., & Hodson, J. (2017, January 23). Canada’s local news poverty: Newsrooms outside the big cities are closing, and with them goes the critical information citizens require for everyday life. Policy Options Politiques. https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/january-2017/canadas-local-news-poverty/
  • Lindgren, A., Hodson, J., & Corbett, J. (2016). Local news poverty in Canadian communities. Local News Research Project. https://rshare.library.ryerson.ca/articles/journal_contribution/Local_news_poverty_in_Canadian_communities_presentation_to_the_House_of_Commons_Heritage_Committee/14638782/1/files/28115118.pdf
  • Macnamara, J. (2012). Journalism and public relations: Unpacking myths and stereotypes. Australian Journalism Review, 34(1), 33–50.
  • Mahone, J. (2022). Workers of the newsrooms unite: An analysis of union organizing in U.S. local news media, 2017 to present. In Center for innovation and sustainability in local media, hussman school of journalism and media. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. https://www.cislm.org/research/labor-unionization/workersofthenewsroomsunite/
  • Mathews, N. (2021). The community caretaker role: How weekly newspapers shielded their communities while covering the Mississippi ICE raids. Journalism Studies, 22(5), 670–687. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2021.1897477
  • Mathews, N., Bélair-Gagnon, V., & Carlson, M. (2023). “Why I quit journalism:” Former journalists’ advice giving as a way to regain control. Journalism, 24(1), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211061958
  • Menges, E. (2018, October 5). It took a lot of courage to tell, they are heroes. Edina Sentinel. https://www.nemonews.net/2018/10/05/it-took-a-lot-of-courage-to-tell-they-are-heroes/
  • Metzler, M. (2021). Where local meets plethora: Media usage and community integration in rural communities. Mass Communication and Society, 24(4), 597–618. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2021.1907413
  • Molotch, H. (1976). The city as a growth machine: Toward a political economy of place. American Journal of Sociology, 82(2), 309–332. https://doi.org/10.1086/226311
  • Moon, R. (2019). Beyond puppet journalism: The bridging work of transnational journalists in a local field. Journalism Studies, 20(12), 1714–1731. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2019.1638293
  • Napoli, P., Weber, M., McCollough, K., & Wang, Q. (2018). Assessing local journalism. In New measures research project. DeWitt Wallace Center for Media & Democracy. https://dewitt.sanford.duke.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Assessing-Local-Journalism_100-Communities. Pdf
  • Navarro, Z. (2006). In search of a cultural interpretation of power: The contribution of Pierre Bourdieu. IDS Bulletin, 37(6), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2006.tb00319.x
  • O’Neill, D., & O’Connor, C. (2008). The passive journalist: How sources dominate local news. Journalism Practice, 2(3), 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512780802281248
  • Olien, C. N., Donohue, G. A., & Tichenor, P. J. (1968). The community editor’s power and the reporting of conflict. Journalism Quarterly, 45(2), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769906804500205
  • Örnebring, H., Kingsepp, E., & Möller, C. (2020). Journalism in small towns: A special issue of Journalism: Theory, practice, criticism. Journalism, 21(4), 447–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919886442
  • Paranjape, N. (2007). Community media: Local is focal. Community Development Journal, 42(4), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsm036
  • Parker, K., Horowitz, J., Brown, A., Fry, R., Cohn, D., & Igielnik, R. (2018, May 22). Urban, suburban and rural residents’ views on key social and political issues. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/05/22/urban-suburban-and-rural-residents-views-on-key-social-and-political-issues/
  • Patterson, T. E. (1998). Political roles of the journalist. In The Politics of News: The News of Politics (pp. 17–32). CQ Press.
  • Pavlik, J. V. (2013). Innovation and the future of journalism. Digital Journalism, 1(2), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2012.756666
  • Perreault, M. F. (2021). Journalism beyond the command post: Local journalists as strategic citizen stakeholders in natural disaster recovery. Journalism Studies, 22(10), 1279–1297. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2021.1950565
  • Perreault, G., & Hanusch, F. (2022). Field insurgency in lifestyle journalism: How lifestyle journalists marginalize Instagram influencers and protect their autonomy. New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221104233
  • Perreault, G., Moon, R., Walsh, J. F., & Perreault, M. F. (2022). “It’s not hate but … ”: Marginal categories in rural journalism. Journalism Practice, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2075782
  • Perreault, M. F., & Perreault, G. P. (2021). Journalists on COVID-19 journalism: Communication ecology of pandemic reporting. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(7), 976–991. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764221992813
  • Perreault, G., Perreault, M. F., & Maares, P. (2022). Metajournalistic discourse as a stabilizer within the journalistic field: Journalistic practice in the COVID-19 pandemic. Journalism Practice, 16(2–3), 365–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2021.1949630
  • Peters, C. (2011). Emotion aside or emotional side? Crafting an ‘experience of involvement’ in the news. Journalism, 12(3), 297–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884910388224
  • Pew Research Center. (2021, June 29). Newspapers fact sheet. https://www.journalism.org/fact-sheet/newspapers/
  • Pickard, V. W. (2008). Cooptation and cooperation: Institutional exemplars of democratic internet technology. New Media and Society, 10(4), 625–645. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444808093734
  • PRSA. (2023). About us: Learn about public relations. https://www.prsa.org/prsa/about-prssa/learn-about-pr
  • Radcliffe, D., & Ali, C. (2017). Local news in a digital world: Small-market newspapers in the digital age. Tow Center for Digital Journalism. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:2rbnzs7h5
  • Reynolds, B., & Seeger, M. (2005). Crisis and emergency risk communication as an integrative model. Journal of Health Communication, 10(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730590904571
  • Richards, I. (2013). Beyond city limits: Regional journalism and social capital. Journalism, 14(5), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884912453280
  • Robinson, S. (2014). Introduction. Journalism Practice, 8(2), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2013.859822
  • Robinson, S. (2023). How journalists engage: A theory of trust building, identities and care. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197667118.001.0001
  • Rojas, H. (2008). Strategy versus understanding: How orientations toward political conversation influence political engagement. Communication Research, 35(4), 452–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208315977
  • Sallot, L. M., & Johnson, E. A. (2006). Investigating relationships between journalists and public relations practitioners: Working together to set, frame and build the public agenda, 1991–2004. Public Relations Review, 32(2), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.02.008
  • Sallot, L. M., Steinfatt, T. M., & Salwen, M. B. (1998). Journalists’ and public relations practitioners’ news values: Perceptions and cross-perceptions. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 75(2), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769909807500211
  • Sands, J. (2019, October 29). Local news is more trusted than national news — But that could change. Knight Foundation. https://knightfoundation.org/articles/local-news-is-more-trusted-than-national-news-but-that-could-change/
  • Schauster, E., & Neill, M. (2017). Have the ethics changed? An examination of ethics in advertising and public relations agencies. Journal of Media Ethics, 32(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/23736992.2016.1258993
  • Scheufele, D. A., Shanahan, J., & Kim, S. H. (2002). Who cares about local politics? Media influences on local political involvement, issue awareness, and attitude strength. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(2), 427–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900207900211
  • Schönhagen, P., & Meißner, M. (2016). The co-evolution of public relations and journalism: A first contribution to its systematic review. Public Relations Review, 42(5), 748–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2016.08.003
  • Schudson, M. (2001). The objectivity norm in American journalism*. Journalism, 2(2), 149–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/146488490100200201
  • Sherwood, M., Marjoribanks, T., & Nicholson, M. (2019). Public relations and journalism. In Oxford research encyclopedia of communication (pp. 1–22). Oxford University Press.
  • Skovsgaard, M., Albæk, E., Bro, P., & de Vreese, C. (2013). A reality check: How journalists’ role perceptions impact their implementation of the objectivity norm. Journalism, 14(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884912442286
  • Smith, C. (2019). Identity (ies) explored: How journalists’ self-conceptions influence small-town news. Journalism Practice, 13(5), 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2018.1544849
  • Smith, F. L., Ostroff, D. H., & Wright, J. W. (2023). Perspectives on radio and television: telecommunication in the United States. Taylor & Francis.
  • Star, L. S. (2010). This is not a boundary object: Reflections on the origin of a concept. Science, Technology, and Human Values, 35(5), 601–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243910377624
  • Stoker, K. (1995). Existential objectivity: Freeing journalists to be ethical. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 10(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327728jmme1001_1
  • Tench, R., & Moreno, A. (2015). Mapping communication management competencies for European practitioners: ECOPSI an EU study. Journal of Communication Management, 19(1), 39–61. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-11-2013-0078
  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022a, September 8). Occupational outlook handbook: News analysts, reporters, and journalists. U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/reporters-correspondents-and-broadcast-news-analysts.htm
  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022b, September 10). Occupational outlook handbook: Public relations specialists. U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/public-relations-specialists.htm
  • U.S. Census. (n.d.). Rural America. https://mtgis-portal.geo.census.gov/arcgis/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=49cd4bc9c8eb444ab51218c1d5001ef6
  • Usher, N. (2019). Putting “place” in the center of journalism research: A way forward to understand challenges to trust and knowledge in news. Journalism and Communication Monographs, 21(2), 84–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1522637919848362
  • Van Leuven, J. K., & Slater, M. D. (1991). How publics, public relations, and the media shape the public opinion process. Journal of Public Relations Research, 3(1–4), 165–178. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr0301-4_8
  • Vos, T. P. (2012). ‘Homo journalisticus’: Journalism education’s role in articulating the objectivity norm. Journalism, 13(4), 435–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884911431374
  • Wahl-Jorgensen, K. (2021). The affordances of interview research on zoom: New intimacies and active listening. Communication, Culture and Critique, 14(2), 373–376. https://doi.org/10.1093/ccc/tcab015
  • Walker, M. (2021, July 13). U.S. newsroom employment has fallen 26% since 2008. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/07/13/u-s-newsroom-employment-has-fallen-26-since-2008/
  • Waters, R. D., Tindall, N. T., & Morton, T. S. (2010). Media catching and the journalist–public relations practitioner relationship: How social media are changing the practice of media relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 22(3), 241–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627261003799202
  • Weder, F., Weaver, C. K., & Rademacher, L. (2023). Curating conversations in times of transformation: Convergence in how public relations and journalism are “doing” communication. Public Relations Inquiry, 12(2), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/2046147X231154550
  • Wenzel, A. (2019). Engaged journalism in rural communities. Journalism Practice, 13(6), 708–722. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2018.1562360
  • Wenzel, A. (2021). Sourcing diversity, shifting culture: Building “cultural competence” in public media. Digital Journalism, 9(4), 461–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.1810585
  • Woods, M. (2011). Rural. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203844304
  • Zoch, L. M., & Molleda, J. C. (2006). Building a theoretical model of media relations using framing, information subsidies, and agenda-building. Public Relations Theory II.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.