66
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Panmasala Chewing Induces Deterioration in Oral Health and Its Implications in Carcinogenesis

Pages 665-677 | Received 11 Apr 2007, Accepted 03 Feb 2008, Published online: 02 Dec 2008

REFERENCES

  • R. C. Agarwal, A. V. Sarode, and S. V. Bhide. 1986. Histopathology of hamster cheek and liver following topical application of lime. Indian J. Med. Res 84:542–547.
  • C. D. Anuradha, and C. S. S. Devi. 1993. Serum protein, ascorbic acid & iron & tissue collagen in oral submucous fibrosis—a preliminary study. Indian J. Med. Res 98:147–151.
  • C. D. Anuradha, and C. S. S. Devi. 1995. Studies on hematological profile and trace elements in OSMF. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutrit 19:9–17.
  • S. Babu, R. V. Bhat, P. U. Kumar, B. Sasikaran, K. V. Rao, P. Aruna, and P. R. Reddy. 1996. A comparative clinico-pathological study of oral submucous fibrosis in habitual chewers of panmasala and betelquid. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol 34:317–322.
  • M. Bagchi, J. Balmoori, D. Bagchi, S. J. Stohs, J. Chakrabarti, and D. K. Das. 2002. Role of reactive oxygen species in the development of cytotoxicity with various forms of chewing tobacco and panmasala. Toxicology 15:247–255.
  • A. Baker, S. Gormally, R. Saxena, D. Baldwin, B. Drumm, J. Bonahm, B. Portmann, and A. P. Mowat. 1995. Copper associated liver disease in childhood. J. Hepatol 23:538–543.
  • P. Balaram, H. Sridhar, T. Rajkumar, S. Vaccarella, R. Herrero, A. Nandakumar, K. Ravichandran, K. Ramdas, R. Sankaranarayanan, V. Gajalakshmi, N. Munoz, and S. Franceschi. 2002. Oral cancer in southern India: the influence of smoking, drinking, paan-chewing and oral hygiene. Int. J. Cancer 98:440–455.
  • A. Banerjee, A. Pakrashi, S. Chatterjee, S. Ghosh, and S. K. Dutta. 1993. Semen characteristics of tobacco users in India. Arch. Androl 30:35–40.
  • R. A. Bhisey, A. G. Ramachandani, A. V. D'Souza, A. M. Borges, and P. N. Notani. 1999. Long-term carcinogenicity of panmasala in Swiss mice. Int. J. Cancer 83:79–84.
  • R. S. Britton. 1996. Metal induced hepatotoxicity. Semin. Liver Dis. 16:3–12.
  • J. P. Canniff, and W. Harvey. 1981. Aetiology of oral submucous fibrosis: the stimulation of collagen synthesis by extracts of arecanut. Int. J. Oral Surg. 10 (suppl 1):163–167.
  • K. W. Chang, T. C. Lee, W. I. Yeh, M. Y. Chung, C. J. Liu, L. Y. Chi, and S. C. Lin. 2004. Polymorphism in heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) promoter is related to the risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma occurring on male areca chewers. Br. J. Cancer 91:1551–1555.
  • Y. C. Chang, C. C. Hu, Th. Tsang, K. W. Tai, C. K. Lii, and M. Y. Chou. 2001. Synergistic effects of nicotine on arecoline induced cytotoxicity in human buccal mucosal fibroblasts. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 30:458–464.
  • A. Chatterjee, and S. Deb. 1999. Genotoxic effect of arecoline given either by peritoneal or oral route in murine bone marrow cells and the influence of N-acetylcysteine. Cancer Lett. 139:23–31.
  • K. Chaudhry. 1999. Is panmasala-containing tobacco carcinogenic?. Natl. Med. J. India 12:21–27.
  • H.-M. Chen, R.-P. Hsieh, H. Yang, Y.-S. Kuo, M. Yen-Ping Kuo, and C.-P. Chiang. 2004. HLA typing in Taiwanese patients with oral submucous fibrosis. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 33:191–199.
  • C.-J. Chiu, M.-L. Chang, C.-P. Chiang, L.-J. Hahn, L.-L. Hsieh, and C.-J. Chen. 2002. Interaction of collagen-related genes and susceptibility to betelquid-induced oral submucous fibrosis. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prevent. 11:646–665.
  • A. G. Christen. 1970. The clinical effect of tobacco on oral tissue. J. Am. Dental Assoc. 81:284–286.
  • S. Cox. 2000. Oral cancer in Australia—risk factors and disease distribution. Ann. Australas. Coll. Dent. Surg. 15:261–263.
  • B. J. Dave, A. H. Trivedi, and A. G. Adhvaryu. 1991. Cytogenetic studies reveal increased genomic damage among panmasala consumers. Mutagenesis 6:159–163.
  • R. Doll. 1986. Tobacco: an overview of health effects. IARC Sci. Publ. 74:11–22.
  • L. J. Dunham, C. S. Muir, and J. J. E. Hamner. 1966. Epithelial atypia in hamster cheek pouches treated repeatedly with calcium hydroxide. Br. J. Cancer 20:588–593.
  • L. J. Dunham, R. H. Shhets, and J. F. Morton. 1974. Proliferative lesions in cheek pouch and esophagus of hamsters treated with plants from Curacao, Netherlands Antilles. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 53:1259–1269.
  • P. Farrand, R. M. Rowe, A. Johnson, and H. Murdoch. 2001. Prevalence, age of onset and demographic relationship of different areca nut habit amongst children in Tower Hamlets, London. Br. Dent. J. 190:150–154.
  • C. L. Gaworski, M. M. Dozier, J. M. Gerhart, N. Rajendran, L. H. Brennecke, C. Aranyi, and J. D. Heck. 1997. 13-week inhalation toxicity study of menthol cigarette smoke. Food Chem. Toxicol. 35:683–692.
  • P. C. Gupta, and C. S. Ray. 2003. Smokeless tobacco and health in India and South Asia. Respirology 8:419–431.
  • P. C. Gupta, and C. S. Ray. 2004. Epidemiology of Betel quid usage. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33 (Suppl.):31–36.
  • W. Harvey, A. Scutt, S. Meghji, and J. P. Caniff. 1986. Stimulation of human buccal mucosa fibroblast in vitro by betel nut alkaloids. Arch. Oral Biol. 3:45–49.
  • S. Hasim, V. S. Aboobaker, R. Madhubala, R. K. Bhattacharya, and A. R. Rao. 1994. Modulatory effects of essential oils from spices on the formation of DNA adduct by aflatoxin B1 in vitro. Nutr. Cancer 21:169–175.
  • IARC. 1985. Monograph on evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemical to human: Tobacco habits other than smoking: Betel quid and areca nut chewing and some related nitrosamine. IARC 37:141–200.
  • IARC. 2004. Monograph on evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemical to human: Betel quid and areca nut chewing. IARC 85:39–48.
  • R. J. Jaju, R. K. Patrel, S. R. Bakshi, A. H. Trivedi, B. J. Dave, and S. G. Adhvaryu. 1992. Chromosome damaging effects of panmasala. Cancer Lett. 65:221–226.
  • A. Jayadeep, P. K. Raveendran, S. Kannan, K. R. Nalinakumari, B. Mathew, M. KrishnanNair, and V. P. Menon. 1997. Serum levels of copper, zinc, iron and ceruplasmin in oral leukoplakia and squamous cell carcinoma. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 16:295–300.
  • P. Jayashankar, P. V. Mohanan, and K. Rathinam. 1997. Hepatoprotective activity of ethyl acetate extract of Acacia catachu. Indian. J. Pharmacol. 29:426–428.
  • N. W. Johnson, and C. Bain. 2000. Tobacco and oral disease. EU-working group on tobacco and oral health. Br. Dent. J. 189:200–206.
  • A. Kanan, D. Mukul, and S. K. Khanna. 1997. Estimation of menthol in panmasala samples by a specttrophotometric method. Food Addit. Contam. 14:367–371.
  • R. D. Khrime, Y. N. Mehra, S. B. S. Mann, S. K. Mehta, and R. N. Chakraborty. 1991. Effect of instant preparation of betelnut (panmasala) on the oral mucosa of albino rats. Indian J. Med. Res. 94:119–124.
  • S. Kumar, and H. N. Saiyed. 1999. Role of betel nut chewing in cancer its toxicity and chemo prevention-an over view. Indian J. Environ. Toxicol. 9:5–11.
  • S. Kumar, K. Chaudhury, and H. N. Saiyed. 2006a. Occupational cancer. In Cancer Awareness, Prevention and control: Strategies for South Asia-A UICC hand book, UICC in collaboration with Tata Memorial Center, Indian Council of Medical Research and Indian Cancer Society, Geneva, Switzerland. 96–115.
  • S. Kumar, S. K. Nigam, A. Shagufta, and H. N. Saiyed. 2003. Effect of Pan masala (a chewing material) on sperm morphology of mouse. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 70:1184–1188.
  • S. Kumar, G. Parmar, and H. N. Saiyed. 2004. Nut and tobacco chewing. Br. Dent. J. 197:292.
  • S. Kumar, G. Parmar, and H. N. Saiyed. 2006b. Plenary lecture on Areca nut and tobacco chewing and health effects—a critical appraisal. International symposium on environmental mutagenesis and public health and XXXI Annual session of Environmental Mutagen Society of India, Hyderabad, India, 23–25 February 2006 (abst).
  • S. Kumar, R. K. Phukan, and M. Chetia. 1993. Annual report, Regional Medical Research Centre, Dibrugarh, India.
  • K. Kumpawat, and A. Chatterjee. 2003. The usefulness of cytogenetic parameters, level of p53 protein and endogenous glutathione as intermediate end-points in raw betel—nut genotoxicity. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 22:363–371.
  • K. C. Lai, and T. C. Lee. 2006. Genetic damage in cultured human keratinocytes stressed by long term exposure to areca nut extracts. Mutat. Res. 599:66–75.
  • R. H. Ma, C. C. Tsai, and T. Y. Sheih. 1995. Increased lysyl oxidase activity in fibroblasts cultured from oral submucous fibrosis associated with betel nut chewing in Taiwan. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 24:407–413.
  • J. M. MacDougall, K. Fandrick, X. Zhang, S. V. Serafin, and J. R. Cashman. 2003. Inhibition of human liver microsomal (S)-nicotine oxidation by (−)-menthol and analogues. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 16:988–993.
  • R. Maher, P. Aga, N. W. Johnson, R. Sankaranaryanan, and S. Warnakulasuriya. 1997. Evaluation of multiple micronutrient supplementations in the management of oral submucous fibrosis in Karachi, Pakistan. Nutr. Cancer 27:41–47.
  • S. Meghji, J. P. Caniff, W. Harvey, A. Scott, and D. Phillipson. 1982. Inhibition of collagenase activity by areca nut tannins: a mechanism of collagen accumulation in oral submucous fibrosis (abstract no 89). J. Dent. Res. 61:545.
  • S. P. Misra, V. Misra, M. Dwivedi, and S. C. Gupta. 1998. Oesophageal subepithelial fibrosis: an extension of oral submucosal fibrosis. Postgrad. Med. J. 74:733–736.
  • A. Mukherjee, and A. K. Giri. 1991. Sister chromatid exchange induced by ‘panmasala (a betel quid ingredient) in male mice in vivo. Food Chem. Toxicol. 29:401–403.
  • A. Mukherjee, J. Chakraborti, A. Chakraborti, J. Banerjee, and A. Sharma. 1991. Effect of panmasala on the germ cells of male mice. Cancer Lett. 58:161–165.
  • M. Nagabhushan, and S. V. Bhide. 1988. Anti-mutagenicity of catechin against environmental mutagens. Mutagenesis 3:293–296.
  • U. Nair, H. Bartsch, and J. Nair. 2004. Alert for an epidemic of oral cancer due to use of the betel quid substitutes gutkha and panmasala: a review of agents and causative mechanisms. Mutagenesis 19:251–262.
  • U. Nair, M. Friesen, I. Richard, R. Maclennan, S. Thomas, and H. Bartsch. 1990. Effect of lime composition on the formation of reactive oxygen species from areca nut extract in vitro. Carcinogenesis 11:2145–2148.
  • U. Nair, H. Ohshima, C. Malaveille, M. Friesen, I. K. O'Neill, A. Hautefeuille, and H. Bartsch. 1986. Identificatioin, occurrence and mutagenicity in Salmonella typhimurium of two synthetic nitroarenes, musk ambrette and musk xylene, in Indian chewing tobacco and betel quid. Food Chem. Toxicol. 24:27–31.
  • B. S. Nelson, and B. Heischober. 1999. Betel nut: a common drug used bynaturalized citizens from India, Far East Asia and the South Pacific Islands. Ann. Emerg. Med. 34:238–243.
  • S. K. Nigam, A. Kumar, S. A. Sheikh, and H. N. Saiyed. 2001. Toxicological evaluation of panmasala in pure inbred Swiss mice a preliminary report on long exposure study. Curr. Sci. 80:1306–1309.
  • S. R. Pai, A. J. Shirke, and S. V. Gothoskar. 1981. Long term feeding study in C 17 mice administered Saccharia coat betel-nut and 1,4 dinitrosopiperazine in combination. Carcinogenesis 2:175–177.
  • G. B. Panigrahi, and A. R. Rao. 1982. Chromosome breaking ability of arecoline, a major betel nut alkaloid, in mouse bone marrow cells in vivo. Mutat. Res. 122:347–353.
  • G. B. Panigrahi, and A. R. Rao. 1983. Influence of caffeine on arecoline induced SCE in bone-marrow cells in vivo. Mutat. Res. 103:347–353.
  • G. B. Panigrahi, and A. R. Rao. 1984. Induction of in vivo sister chromatid exchange by arecaidine a betel nut alkaloid, in mouse bone marrow cells. Cancer Lett. 23:189–192.
  • G. Parmar. 2005. Role of areca nut and panmasala chewing in causation of oral disease in human. PhD thesis, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.
  • R. K. Patel, R. J. Jaju, S. R. Bakshi, A. H. Trivedi, B. J. Dave, and S. G. Adhvaryu. 1994a. Panmasala—a genotoxic menace. Mutat. Res. 320:245–249.
  • R. K. Patel, A. H. Trivedi, R. J. Jaju, S. G. Adhvaryu, and D. B. Balar. 1994b. Ethanol potentiates the clastogenicity of panmasala—an in vitro experience. Carcinogenesis 15:2017–2021.
  • R. K. Patel, A. H. Trivedi, R. J. Jaju, M. S. Kukreti, J. M. Bhatavdekar, P. M. Shah, and D. D. Patel. 1998a. Protection from panmasdala induced genomic damage by beta-carotene and retionic acid—an in vitro experience. Neoplasma 45:169–175.
  • R. K. Patel, A. H. Trivedi, S. K. Roy, J. M. Bhatavdekar, P. M. Shah, and D. D. Patel. 1998b. Influence of alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid on panmasala induced genomic damage. An in vitro experiment. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 17:419–424.
  • P. E. Peterson. 2003. Tobacco and oral health—the role of World Health Organization. Oral Health Prev. Dent. 1:309–315.
  • K. Polasa, S. Babu, and I. S. Shenolikar. 1993. Dose-dependent genotoxic effect of panmasala and areca nut in the Salmonella typhimurium assay. Food Chem. Toxicol. 31:439–442.
  • A. G. Ramchandani, A. V. D’ Souza, A. M. Borges, and R. A. Bhisey. 1998. Evaluation of carcinogenic/co-carcinogenic activity of a common chewing product, panmasala in mouse skin, stomach and oesophagus. Int. J. Cancer 75:225–232.
  • K. K. Ranadive, S. V. Gothoskar, A. R. Rao, B. U. Tazebwalla, and R. Y. Ambaye. 1976. Experimental studies on betel-nut and tobacco carcinogenicity. Int. J. Cancer 24:835–843.
  • K. Ranganathan, M. U. Deci, E. Joshua, K. KiranKumar, and T. R. Saraswathi. 2004. Oral submucous fibrosis: a case-control study in Chennai, South India. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 33:274–277.
  • A. R. Rao. 1984. Modifying influences of betel-quidingredients on B(a)P induced carcinogenesis in the buccal pouch of hamster. Int. J. Cancer 33:581–586.
  • A. R. Rao, and P. Das. 1989. Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of different preparations of arecanut in mice. Int. J. Cancer 43:428–432.
  • D. Ray, Kh. Sharatchaandra, and I. S. Thokchom. 2006. Antipyretic, antidiarrhoeal, hypoglycaemic and hepatoprotective activities of ethyl acetate extract of Acacia catechu Willd in albino rats. Indian J. Pharmacol. 38:408–413.
  • J. Reibel. 2003. Tobacco and oral diseases: an update on the evidence, with recommendations. Med. Princ. Pruct. 12:22–32.
  • P. A. Reichart, and H. P. Philipsen. March, 2006. Oral submucous fibrosis in a 31-year-old Indian woman: first case report from Germany. Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir. 10:192–196. (in German)
  • A. Rivenson, D. Hoffmann, B. Prolopczyk, S. Amin, and S. S. Hecht. 1988. Induction of lung and exocrine pancreas tumour in F-344 rats by tobacco-specific and Areca-derived N-nitrosamines. Cancer Res. 48:6912–6917.
  • M. P. Rosin. 1984. The influence of pH on the convertogenic activity of plant phenolics. Mutat. Res. 135:109–113.
  • T. M. Said, G. Ranga, and A. Agarwal. 2005. Relationship between semen quality and tobacco chewing in men undergoing infertility evaluation Fertil. Steril. 84:649–653.
  • R. M. Samarth, M. Panwar, M. Kumar, and A. Kumar. 2006. Protective effects of Mentha piperita Linn on benzo[a]pyrene-induced lung carcinogenicity and mutagenicity in Swiss albino mice. Mutagenesis 21:61–66.
  • A. B. Sarma, J. Chakrabarti, A. Chakrabarti, T. S. Banerjee, D. Roy, D. Mukherjee, and A. Mukherjee. 1992. Evaluation of panmasala for toxic effects on liver and other organs. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30:161–163.
  • S. Sen, G. Talukdar, and A. Sharma. 1988. Unscheduled DNA synthesis in mouse gastric mucosa treated with betel-ingredients. Bionature 8:79–83.
  • A. Sengupta, S. Ghosh, and S. Bhattacharjee. 2005. Dietary cardamom inhibits the formation of azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt foci in mice and reduces COX-2 and iNOS expression in the colon. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 6:118–122.
  • N. Shah, and P. P. Sharma. 1998. Role of chewing and smoking habits in the etiology of oral submucous fibrosis (OSF): a case-control study. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 27:475–479.
  • R. N. Sharan. 1996. Association of betel nut with carcinogenesis. Cancer J. 9:13–19.
  • A. K. Sharma, R. Gupta, H. P. Gupta, and A. K. Singh. 2000. Haemodynamic effects of pan masal a in healthy volunteers. J. Assoc. Physicians India 48:400–401.
  • L. P. Shirname, M. M. Menon, and S. V. Bhide. 1984. mutagenicity of betel-quid and its ingredients using mammalian test system. Carcinogenesis 5:501–503.
  • L. P. Shirname, M. M. Menon, J. Nair, and S. V. Bhide. 1983. Correlation of mutagenicity and tumorigenicity of betel-quid and its ingredients. Nutr. Cancer 5:87–91.
  • N. M. Shivapurkar, S. N. Ranadive, S. V. Gothoskar, S. V. Bhide, and K. J. Ranadive. 1980. Tumorigenic effect of aqueous and polyphenolic fractions of betel-nut in Swiss strain mice. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 8:1159–1161.
  • A. Sinha, and A. R. Rao. 1995. Embryo toxicity of betel nut in mice. Toxicology 37:315–326.
  • H. F. Stich, and W. Stich. 1982. Chromosome damaging activity of saliva of betel nut and tobacco chewers. Cancer Health 15:193–202.
  • H. F. Stich, and S. S. Tsang. 1989. Promoting activity of betel-quid ingredients and their inhibition by retinal. Cancer Lett. 45:71–77.
  • H. F. Stich, A. P. Hornby, B. Mathew, R. Sankaranaryanan, and M. K. Nair. 1988. Response of oral leukoplakia to the administration of vitamin A. Cancer Lett. 40:93–110.
  • K. Sukumaran, and R. Kuttan. 1995. Inhibition of tobacco-induced mutagenesis by eugenol and plant extract. Mutat. Res. 343:25–30.
  • W. J. Suneetha, and T. P. Krishnakantha. 2005. Cardamom extract as inhibitor of human platelet aggregation. Phytother. Res. 19:437–440.
  • C. Sushma, and C. Sharang. 2005. Panmasala advertisements are surrogate for tobacco products. Indian J. Cancer 42:94–98.
  • T. Tanaka, H. Mori, M. Fujh, M. Takahashi, and I. Hirono. 1983. Carcinogenicity examination of betel quid. 11. Effect of vitamin A deficiency on rats fed semipurified diet containing betel nut and calcium hydroxide. Nutr. Cancer 4:260–266.
  • A. Taylor. 1996. Detection and monitoring for disorders of essential trace elements. Ann. Clin. Biochem. 33:486–510.
  • S. Thomas, and J. Kearsley. 1993. Betel quid and oral cancer: a review. Eur. J. Cancer B Oral Oncol. 29B:251–255.
  • W. M. Tilakaratne, M. F. Klinikowski, T. Saku, T. J. Peter, and S. Warankulasuriya. 2006. Oral submucous fibrosis: Review on etiology and pathogenesis. Oral Oncol. 42:561–568.
  • S. L. Tomar, and G. A. Giovino. 1998. Incidence and predictors of smokeless tobacco use among U.S. youth. Am. J. Public Health 88:20–26.
  • A. H. Trivedi, R. K. Patel, U. M. Rawal, S. G. Adhvaryu, and D. B. Balar. 1994. Evaluation of chemopreventive effects of betel leaf on the genotoxicity of panmasala. Neoplasma 41:177–181.
  • C. Trivedy, D. Baldwin, S. Warnakalasuriya, N. Johnson, and T. J. Peters. 1997. Copper content in areca catechu (betel nut) products and oral submucous fibrosis. Lancet 349:1447.
  • C. R. Trivedy, G. Craig, and S. Warnaklsuriya. 2002. Areca nut symposium. The oral health consequences of chewing areca nut. Addict. Biol. 7:115–125.
  • C. Trivedy, S. Meghji, K. A. Warnakulsuriya, N. W. Johnson, and M. Harris. 2001. Copper stimulation in oral fibroblast in vitro: a role in pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 30:465–470.
  • C. Trivedy, S. Warnakulasuriya, V. K. Hazarey, and N. W. Johnson. 1999. The role of copper in the aetiopathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis. In: A. K. Verma. Oral oncology IV. McMillan Press, New Delhi, 7–10.
  • C. Trivedy, K. A. Warnakulasuriya, T. J. Peters, R. Senkus, V. K. Hazarey, and N. W. Johnson. 2000. Raised copper levels in tissue in oral submucous fibrosis. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 29:241–248.
  • K. K. Wary, and R. N. Sharan. 1998. An aqueous extract of betel nut of northeast India induces DNA-strand breaks and enhances rate of cell proliferation in vitro. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 114:579–582.
  • G. Wenke, and D. Hoffmann. 1983. A study of betel-quid carcinoopgenesis I on the in vitro nitrosation of arecoline. Carcinogenesis 3:169–172.
  • World Health Organization. 2002. The World Health Report 2002. Reducing risk, promoting healthy life, WHO, Geneva, 1–248.
  • C. G. Yeh. 1997. Fatigue root fracture: a spontaneous root fracture in non-endodontically treated teeth. Br. Dent. J. 182:261–266.
  • X. M. Yin, J. Y. Peng, and Y. J. Gao. 2003. Clinical study on the relationship between tooth abrasion and the habits of chewing betel nut. Hunan Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao 28:171–173. (In Chinese)
  • R. B. Zain, N. Ikeda, P. C. Gupta, K. A. Warnakulasuriya, C. W. van Wyk, P. Shrestha, and T. Axel. 1999. Oral mucosal lesions associated with betel quid, areca nut and tobacco chewing habits: consensus from a workshop held in Kuala Lampur, Malaysia, November 25–27, 1996. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 28:1–4.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.